Major rivers and lakes of Thailand. The relief of thailand, the mountains of thailand
Geography.
Thailand is located in Southeast Asia on the Indochina Peninsula, bordered by the Andaman Sea in the southwest and the Gulf of Thailand in the southeast. Thailand occupies an area of 517 thousand square meters. km, which is slightly smaller than the state of Texas in the United States or about the same size as the territory of France. Its outline on the map looks like the head of an elephant, whose trunk is lowered down to the Malay Peninsula. Often, the Thais themselves call Thailand "land of the elephant", and the royal symbol is White elephant. The capital of Thailand - Bangkok (in Thai "Krung Tep" - "City of Angels") is the largest city in the country. For 1995
Bangkok was the 17th largest city in Asia with a population of about 7 million people. Bangkok lies at 14 north latitude, which is on the same level as Madras, Manila, Guatemala and Karthum. The highest point in the country - Mount Doi Inthanon 2559m above sea level is located in the north-west of the country, near the city of Chiang Mai. There are about 70 national parks and reserves throughout the country. On the coasts of the Andaman Sea in the southwest and the Gulf of Thailand in the east of the country, there are hundreds of clean sandy beaches.
The length of the country from north to south is approximately 1860 km, but due to the relief convolutions, the extent in any direction is about 1000 km or less. Due to the fact that from north to south the location on the 16 degree strip, Thailand has the most varied climate in all of Southeast Asia. The topography ranges from high mountains in the north (mainly along the borders with northern Burma and the mountain range of Southwest China to the southeastern peaks of the Tibetan Plateau) to limestone tropical islands in the south, which is part of the Malay Archipelago.
The northern and central rivers and tributaries empty into the Gulf of Thailand via the Chao Phraya River near Bangkok, Mae Nam Mun and other water streams from the northeast exit into the South China Sea via the Mekong River.
These main geographical characteristics divide the country into four main zones:
- A fertile central region dominated by the Me Nam Chao Phraya River;
- The northeastern plateau, the poorest region of the kingdom (due to the thin layer of soil plus drought and floods), rising 300 m above the central region;
- Northern Thailand, a region of mountains and fertile valleys;
- The southern peninsula, which stretches to the Malayan border and is mostly tropical forests or humid jungles. The southern peninsula receives the main rains and the northeastern one is in the minority, and therefore the climate in the north is less humid.
From the western coast of the Malay Peninsula to Vietnam, the Sunda Reef separates the Gulf of Thailand from the South China Sea. On the opposite side of the peninsula is the Andaman Sea, directed to the Indian Ocean west of the Andaman of India and the Nicobar Islands. The coast of the Andaman Sea from Thailand and the Gulf of Thailand forms 2710 km. beaches. The depth in the bay is from 30 to 80 m, while in the Anlaman Sea the depth reaches more than 100 m.
Thailand's neighbors (moving clockwise from the north) are Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia and Myanmar (Burma). The settlements in the delta of the Chao Phraya River became the oldest core of the future state. The local fertile lands allow for intensive farming and largely cover the country's food needs. In the east, surrounded by low mountain ranges (700-1000 m), the Korat mountain plateau stretches, almost devoid of vegetation as a result of intensive deforestation. In the west of the country stretches a mountain range (1500-2000 m), with impenetrable virgin forests, serves as a kind of barrier between the central regions and the border with Burma. This ridge covers the northern part of the Malay Peninsula, which led to the mountainous terrain of southern Thailand.
The southern coast of the country, with its countless bays and beaches, is washed by the waves of two seas: the Andaman Sea of the Indian Ocean in the west and the South China Sea, to which the Gulf of Thailand belongs. Thailand has a tropical climate and three seasons. During the rainy season, which lasts from May to October, southeast monsoons dominate the entire country, bringing heavy rains. During the dry winter, from November to February, mild weather sets in here, and the daytime temperature is not much lower than the annual average. At night in the highlands of northern Thailand, the temperature drops to almost 0 C, and in Bangkok it is about 16 C.
Temperatures are much higher in the south of the country. During the hot season - from March to May, strong heat and high humidity are set, and there is practically no precipitation. In the eastern part of the peninsula, its own special climate has formed, which is characterized by uniform rains throughout the year, and only in September there is a sharp increase in showers. Winter is the perfect time to visit Thailand. There is almost no rain during this season, and they do not interfere with long walking tours around the country. But in the hot season, even the Thais themselves are exhausted from the scorching heat, and the Europeans are looking for salvation from it on the beaches. On the islands of Phuket and Phi Phi, it rains mainly in May-June, and on Koh Samui - in October-November.
The climate in Thailand is determined by the monsoons, which result in 3 seasons in North, Northeast and Central Thailand, and 2 seasons in South Thailand. The three-season zone, which extends approximately from the far North to the province of Petchaburi in the southern part of the peninsula, forms a "dry and humid monsoonal climate". July to November is the "rainy season", November to February is the cool season, and March to June is the "hot season".
Officially, the rainy season begins in July (according to the agricultural calendar), but still the weather depends on the monsoons every year. Generally, the further south you go, the shorter the dry season. In the north, in Chiang Mai, the wet season lasts up to 6 months (from mid-November to May), in the central and northeastern regions, 5 months (from December to May).
Most of Thailand - including the mountainous area in the north and the Korat Plateau in the northeast - has a very humid climate - from 66% to 82%, depending on the time of day and season. The highest temperature during the hot season reaches 39 C during the daytime, and cools down by only a few degrees at night. In the cool season in the north in Chiang Mai, the temperature drops to 13 C at night, and in Mae Hong Son province it is lower.
The river network of Thailand is dense. Rivers are characterized by sharp changes in water content throughout the year and high floods during the monsoon rainy season. Almost all rivers begin in the mountains of the northern regions and flow into the Gulf of Thailand. Of particular importance in the life of the country is the Menam Chao Phraya River, the longest and most abundant river in Thailand. Its length is 1200 km (navigable for 400 km from the mouth). Together with its tributaries, it irrigates those areas where rice is grown. Through countless canals - klongs - water is diverted from the river to the rice fields. From May to October, during the rainy season, the entire lowland along which the Menam Chao Phraya flows is flooded with water. Other rivers: The Mekong River flows along the eastern and partly northeastern border of Thailand.
Equally important is the right tributary of the Mekong River - Mun. Along the western border (partly) is the Salween River. The lakes are insignificant; the largest is Kam (in the Mekong River system). In the life of a Thai, water determines a lot: the harvest depends on it; through canals and rivers, the harvest is brought to the city for sale; on narrow long boats - sampangs - communication is maintained between villages located on the banks of rivers and canals. Many villages are built on stilts over water. Many peasants live in large boats covered with mats, especially during prolonged floods. After all, the river is not always a protector and nurse. In the flood, she becomes cruel and merciless, like an evil dragon. folk tales. There are a lot of fish in the rivers and canals, and almost all the peasants are engaged in fishing.
Thailand Geography Facts:
The name of the country is the Kingdom of Thailand, abbreviated as Thailand.
Capital - Bangkok
Location - Southeast Asia
Territory area - total: 514,000 km2, of which the sea zone -2,230 km2
Domain - *. th, commercial zone - *. co. th, non-commercial - *. or. th
The extreme northern point of Thailand is 20o 54 north latitude and 99o 86 east. longitude.
The extreme southern point is 5o 68 north latitude and 101o 13 east longitude.
The extreme western point of Thailand is 18o 38 north latitude and 97o 49 east. longitude.
The extreme eastern point is 16o 68 north latitude and 105o 67 east longitude.
Area - 514,000 km2, approximately equal to France or the Khanty-Mansiysk Aut. county
The highest mountains are Doi Inthanon (2595m), Doi Pha Ham Pok (2297m), Doi Luang (2195m), Doi Suthep (2185m), Doi Pha Cho (2024m)
Most long rivers– Mun (673km), Nan (672km), Ping (590km), Yom (555km), Pasak (513km), Chi (442km), Chao Phraya (365km)
Land borders - 4,863 km; borders with Burma - 1,800 km, Cambodia - 803 km, Laos - 1,754 km, Malaysia - 504 km. Thailand controls the only land route to Malaysia and Singapore
Natural disasters - drought due to groundwater imbalance in densely populated regions
Landscape - plain in the central part, Korat plateau in the northeast, mountains in the north
Forests make up 26% of all land resources in the country
Natural resources - tin, natural gas, tantalum, wood, lead, fish, fluorite
Irrigated land – 44,000 km2
The length of the coast is 3,219 km
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by geography
on the theme: "Thailand".
Prepared by: Eleonora Vorobyova
1. General information
2. Geography
3. Population
4. Administrative division
5. Economy
6. Political structure
8. Culture
Information sources
1. General information
Thailand, the Kingdom of Thailand is a state of Southeast Asia, located in the southwestern part of the Indochina peninsula and in the northern part of the Malay Peninsula. It borders Cambodia and Laos to the east, Myanmar to the west, and Malaysia to the south. The name (the word "thai" means "freedom") justifies itself: Thailand is the only country in Southeast Asia that has retained independence from European states, while all neighboring countries were colonies of France or Great Britain.
Official language- Thai, the capital and largest city in the country - Bangkok.
Population - 70 498 494 people. (20s). Currency - Thai baht. The state religion is Buddhism.
The territory of Thailand (the 50th in the world) is stretched from north to south (the distance from the northernmost point to the southernmost point is 1860 km). Due to its central position in Southeast Asia and the largest north-south stretch among the countries of the region, Thailand has the most diverse climate in Southeast Asia, so the main crops are harvested several times a year, and the tourist season “flows” from some climatic zones to others, making Thailand one of the world's few year-round tourist destinations. Forests occupy 10% of the country's territory: tropical deciduous in the north, tropical evergreen in the wetter southern regions.
Geographically, climatically, in terms of natural resources, diversity of landforms and even the ethnic composition of the population Thailand is divided into five main regions: Central, Eastern, Northern, Northeastern and Southern Thailand.
2. Geography
Thailand is located between 5°36" and 20°28" north latitude and 97°20" and 105°35" east longitude. It occupies an area of 514 thousand km², of which the sea zone is 2.23 thousand km².
The maximum length of the territory from west to east is 780 km, from north to south - 1650 km. In the southwest, the territory of the country is washed by the Andaman Sea, from the east and south by the Gulf of Thailand of the South China Sea, the total length of the coastline is 3,219 km. Most of the coast is low-lying, swampy in places. The western coast of the Malay Peninsula is dotted with numerous rias bays and estuaries of small rivers. In the Gulf of Thailand, near the Cambodian border, there are the islands of Chang and Kut, off the Malay Peninsula - the islands of Koh Samui, Koh Phangan, and several smaller ones. In the Andaman Sea lie the islands of Surin, Similan, Phuket (the largest island), as well as other smaller islands.
Most of the state border of Thailand (total length 4,863 km) runs along natural dividers - the border with Cambodia (803 km) goes along the mountain ranges in the southeast, with Laos (1754 km) - along the Mekong River in the east and northeast. east. In the west, Thailand borders on Myanmar (1,800 km), and in the southern part of the country there is a border with Malaysia (506 km). Most of the borders were established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in accordance with treaties imposed on Thailand and its neighbors by Britain and France. However, back in the late 1980s, there was a territorial dispute on the border with Laos and Cambodia.
The mountain systems located in the north, west and south of Thailand belong to the Paleozoic geosynclinal South Asian folding, activated in the Mesozoic. The mountains are composed of slates, sandstones and limestones of Paleozoic and Triassic seffusives containing large bodies of granites.
More than half of the country's territory lies in low-lying alluvial plains, the largest of which, the Menam lowland, is located in the central part of the country along the Chao Phraya River. Due to river sediments at the mouth of the Chua Phraya, the land advances on the Gulf of Thailand at a speed of 2-3 m per year.
3. Population
The majority of the population of Thailand belong to the Thai group (75-80%) and 94.6% practice Buddhism.
Approximately two thirds of the Thai group are Thais, a third are Lao. In the Isan region, the percentage of Lao is much higher, in many areas they make up the majority of the population. Most Thais and Laos practice Buddhism. Malays live in the south, most of them professing Islam, for most of them the native language is yavi.
Near the border with Myanmar live the Karen, Miao and Mon, who have Christianity spread, the Uthai-Cambodian Khmer. After the Vietnam War, the number of Viet increased, mainly living in the northeast of the country.
One in seven people in Thailand is an ethnic Chinese. The Chinese live all over the country, but mostly isolated, in separate neighborhoods.
General information about the age composition:
0-14 years old -- 21.2%
15-64 years old -- 70.3%
Over 65 years old -- 8.5%
National composition:
Thai group - 75% (about a third - Lao),
Chinese - 14%.
Religious composition
Buddhism 94.6%,
Islam - 4.6%,
Christianity - 0.7%.
4. Administrative division
Thailand is divided into 76 provinces and one municipality - the capital city of Bangkok. Some Thais still consider Bangkok to be a separate province, which it was until 1972.
Each province is subdivided into districts -- as of 2011, there are a total of 878 districts and 50 metropolitan areas of Bangkok. Each of the provinces has one central district. Until 2007, there were 81 small districts.
In Bangkok, the districts of the city are called khet, which are further divided into kwengs, roughly similar to tambons (communities or sub-districts) in other provinces.
In addition to the specified administrative division, the settlements of Thailand are divided into large and (medium) cities, towns and villages, to which some functions of districts and communities in the territory belonging to the city have been transferred.
Three levels of administrative division of urban (municipal) entities:
· Big City over 50 thousand inhabitants, population density over 3 thousand people per 1 km²
· (average) city of more than 10 thousand inhabitants, population density of more than 3 thousand people per 1 km² - or the center of the province
settlement (small town): over 5 thousand inhabitants, population density above 1.5 thousand people per 1 km²
The provinces surrounding Bangkok are referred to as Greater Bangkok as the emerging capital is already taking over these areas. The 4 regions of Thailand -- north, northeast, south and central region are generally used for statistical purposes only. Sometimes other regions are also distinguished.
5. Economy
Thailand is an agro-industrial country. In 2012, according to the National Economic and Social Development Authority, Thailand's GDP at current market prices was 11.375 trillion baht.
Benefits: Success in export production that can even offset imports. Rapid economic growth. Availability of natural gas. One of the world's main exporters of rice, fruits and rubber.
Weaknesses: The economy is concentrated mainly around Bangkok. Insufficient stocks fresh water. Rapidly growing external debt. 60% of the population work in small farms.
Energy: about 70% of electricity is generated using natural gas. Natural gas is produced in the offshore Platong field, located at the bottom of the Gulf of Thailand. Another major supplier of natural gas is Qatar, which transports liquefied gas to the Map Ta Phut LNG LNG terminal.
Tourism brings considerable income to Thailand. So, in 2011, Thailand was visited by more than 19 million foreign tourists. Main destinations: Bangkok, Pattaya, Phuket and Samui.
share Agriculture in GDP - 10.7%, it employs half of the able-bodied population. The main agricultural crop is rice, which occupies a third of cultivated land. Industrial crops include sugar cane, cotton and jute. Quite a few important role fishing plays (3 million tons of fish per year).
The share of industry in GDP is 44.5%, it employs 14% of the able-bodied population. About 70% of electricity in Thailand is generated from natural gas. The sources of gas are the offshore Platong field located in the Gulf of Thailand, which is operated by Chevron. The second source of gas is liquefied natural gas, the main supplier of which is Qatar. Natural gas consumption in the country is growing rapidly: if in 2004 Thailand used 24 billion cubic meters, then in 2010 it was already 37 billion cubic meters.
6. Political structure
The form of government is a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is King Bhumibol Adulyadej (since 1946). The king has lost absolute power, but still remains the protector of Buddhism, the symbol of unity and the Supreme Commander. The current king enjoys the full respect of the nation, which is sometimes used during political crises. The Thai Parliament is a bicameral National Assembly, consisting of a 150-seat Senate and a 480-seat House of Representatives. The leader of the party with the majority in the House of Representatives usually becomes prime minister. Members of both chambers are elected by the people of Thailand, with the exception of 50% of the Upper House (Senate), they are appointed by the monarch. The lower house (House of Representatives) is elected for 4 years, the Senate for 6 years. Until March 2000, the Senate was appointed exclusively by the king.
Thailand is an active member of the Southeast Asian Association of Nations.
King of Thailand Bhumibol Adulyadej.
His name means "Strength of the country, incomparable power." The color of the king is yellow (by birthday - Monday). He succeeded his brother, King Rama VIII (September 20, 1925 - June 9, 1946), who died in 1946, on the throne.
Despite the ceremonial status of the king in Thailand, Bhumibol repeatedly made important political decisions, and also used the right of veto. The people gave the title "Great". Has been on the throne since June 9, 1946. Crowned 5 May 1950. He is the longest-reigning head of state and of all monarchs in the history of Thailand. He is also one of the oldest sitting heads of state in the world. The crown name of the monarch.
7. Russian-Thai relations
thailand geographical population economic
Diplomatic relations between Russia and Siam were officially established during the visit of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) to Russia from July 2 to 10, 1897. On December 4, 1897, Alexander Olarovsky was appointed Charge d'Affaires and Consul General of the Russian Empire in Siam. The Russian Consulate General was opened in Bangkok, and later it was expanded to a mission that lasted until 1917. On June 23, 1899, a Declaration on Jurisdiction, Trade and Navigation was signed in Bangkok. Due to the friendly nature of Russian-Siamese relations and the expansion of cultural ties, the royal guards of Siam until the 70s. wore the uniform of Russian life hussars, some elements of this uniform have survived to this day.
After 1917 there was a short break in bilateral relations. Diplomatic relations between the USSR and Thailand were established on March 12, 1941. In 1947, an Agreement on the exchange of diplomatic missions was signed between the two countries, and a year later the embassy began its work in the capital of Thailand. During the Cold War and until the end of the 70s. bilateral relations were neutral.
A new period in relations was the official visit of Thai Prime Minister Kriangsak Chamanan to the USSR in 1979. During this visit, the Soviet-Thai Friendship Society was established. Since the mid 80s. In connection with positive changes in the world political arena, bilateral relations gradually began to strengthen again. In 1987, the first exchange of visits between the foreign ministers of the two countries took place. In May 1988, General Prem Tinsulanon, Prime Minister of Thailand, paid an official visit to Moscow. In February 1990, N. I. Ryzhkov, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, arrived on an official visit to Bangkok.
On December 28, 1991, the Thai government recognized the Russian Federation as a sovereign state and confirmed its intentions to develop mutually beneficial bilateral relations.
Since the beginning of the XXI century. bilateral relations have steadily gained momentum in key areas of cooperation. The culmination of this process was the visit to Thailand in October 2003 of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin and his wife, which became the first visit of the head Russian state to the Kingdom of Thailand since the collapse of the USSR.
8. Culture
Architecture. The entire development of Thai artistic culture is associated with Buddhism, which in the Thai version also included some Hindu motifs. In monumental architecture, the main types of buildings are the stupa and the temple. Thai stupas go back to the Mon and Khmer prototypes (prasang, prasat, chedi; the prefix "pra" means "holy"). The basis for the development of temples is vekhan - a building with brick or stone columns and a wooden roof.
Most a prime example architectural creativity of the Thais is a complex of temples and the Grand Royal Palace in Bangkok. The buildings located on the territory of the temples have a different form and meaning - these are usually sanctuaries, halls for religious ceremonies, libraries and schools. The walls can be decorated with scenes from the Hindu epic (Ramakien: King Rama 2 translated the Ramayana into Thai) and images of mythological animals. The sacred Bodhi tree is often found in the courtyard of monasteries. There are also numerous sculptures of mythical creatures with supernatural powers and guarding the monastery.
Music. In the ceremonial, court and religious life of the Thais, music has always occupied an important place. The traditional orchestra consists of gongs, bells, strings, xylophones. For Europeans, Thai music sounds quite unusual. It still accompanies important public ceremonies and classical theater performances today.
Artistic crafts. Thailand is famous for its folk art crafts. They are found everywhere - the most major centers fisheries in Bangkok and Chiang Mai. Thailand is one of Asia's largest producers of silk and cotton products, furniture and carved wood products. Numerous shops offer ceramics, caskets, painted fans and umbrellas, bronze and brass products, Thai dolls, etc. In Thailand, you can find a lot of inexpensive jewelry made of silver and traditional Asian "yellow" gold with precious stones (rubies, emeralds , sapphires).
Information sources
1. Atlas of geography for grades 10-11.
2. http://guide.travel.ru/thailand/
3. http://tonkosti.ru
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Pendleton R.L. Geography of Thailand. Abbreviated translation from English IN AND. Iskoldsky. M: Progress, 1966. Chapters 1-3 - physical geography essay.
Chapter I
relief and geological structure
PHYSICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS
Between the plains of Assam in the west and Sichuan in the east, where the mountain ranges of Southeast Asia converge in a tight knot, rises the Minya Konka massif, exceeding 20,000 feet. To the south, the massif descends, and four mountain systems branch off from it, like giant tentacles: the Arakan-Yoma mountains, stretching along the western outskirts of Burma, the Central Cordillera - on the Malay Peninsula, the Annam Cordillera and the mountains of South China. Between these mountain systems are three lowlands. The westernmost of them covers the Irrawaddy River basin, the easternmost one adjoins the Gulf of Tonkin and the plains of southern Bacbo (Northern Vietnam). Between them lies in general terms similar to the first two lowlands, but wider and deeper depression, bounded on one side by the Annam, and on the other by the Central Cordillera. Here are two of the most important physical and geographical regions of Thailand - the alluvial plain of Chaoprayi (Menam) and the vast Korat plateau.
The lower part of the Chaopraya Basin, or the vast Central Valley of Thailand, includes the Bangkok Plain, which lies only slightly above sea level, washed by the waters of the Gulf of Thailand. It is adjoined on the east by the region of the Korat Plateau, the average height of which does not exceed 300-500 feet. The mountain ranges rising in the west and east of the Bangkok Plain merge in the north of Thailand and, gradually rising, connect with the mountainous region of Yunnan. The Central Cordillera, or the Western Mountains of Thailand, bordering the Central Valley in the west, stretches to the south of the Peninsula and ends in the territory of the Malaysian Federation.
Despite the variety of landforms in Thailand, in general they can be divided into three types: highlands, plains with a thin cover of sediment on a rocky base, and alluvial lowlands. The highlands stretch along the western outlying regions of the country and occupy a significant part of the territory in the north. To the south of the Peninsula, the mountains stretch out in echelon chains, with their number increasing in the southeast. In most of the Korat Plateau, bedrock is overlain by a thin layer of alluvium. The central valley is composed of alluvium accumulating in the delta. Similar sediments cover a narrow strip of plain that runs along the entire coast of the Peninsula, and in the southeast extends between the sea and the mountains.
There are five physical-geographic regions in Thailand:
1) the Central Valley, subdivided into the Bangkok Plain, the Upper Plain and the Marginal Plains;
2) Continental highlands, including the region of the Northern mountains and valleys and the Western mountains;
3) Korat plateau;
4) South East Coast and
5) Peninsula with East and West coasts.
CENTRAL VALLEY
The region of the vast Central Valley of Thailand is formed by the alluvial plains of the Chao Phraya, its tributaries and branches, as well as the foothill belt adjacent to them. The soils of the Central Plain are easily cultivated, a significant part of the population and agricultural land is concentrated here, and there is a well-developed transport network. Without a doubt, the Central Valley is the heart of Thailand.
From the mountains of Northern Thailand to the Gulf of Thailand, the Central Valley stretches for about 300 miles. From west to east it extends for 100-150 miles, and to the south its width increases. According to natural and cultural features, three sub-regions can be distinguished in the Central Valley.
Bangkok plain
The Bangkok Plain begins north of Nakhon Sawan, where the Ping and Nan rivers merge to form the Chao Phraya. Near Ayutthaya, the Pasak River enters the Bangkok plain, originating on the western slopes of the mountains that stretch along the outskirts of the Korat plateau. The Bangkok Plain is also drained by two other rivers, the Meklon-gom and the Prachinburi (Ban Pakong). The average width of the plain is about 75 miles, the length is about 200 miles, the total area is 11,950 square meters. miles.
The true Chaopraya Delta begins near Wat Sing (approximately 15°15′ N), where the river begins to branch into branches.
Above Wat Sing, individual low hills and mountains approach the very shore. To the east of this point rises Khao Baoklam, a remnant hill about 800 feet above sea level. To the south, the hills move farther and farther away from the rivers. Near Wat Sing, 125 miles from the sea, a wide branch of the Nakon Chaisi (Supan-buri, or Tachin) separates from Chaopraya, independently flowing into the Gulf of Thailand. This branch, much less full-flowing than the main branch of the Chao Phraya, flows south without forming additional tributaries. Meanwhile, another branch soon separates from the main channel of the Chaopraya below Wat Singh - Noi ("small river"), and then somewhat to the south - Lopburi, whose waters flow to the east and into which the Pasak River flows. Both branches - both Noi and Lopburi - then return to the main channel of the Chaopraya.
Physiographic regions
The Bangkok Plain is the only typical alluvial plain in Thailand, formed as a result of the accumulation of river sediments. The deposits cover the erosive surface with a thick layer, and every year the mature delta plain is covered with new thick layers of silt. This truly alluvial plain, which is 60 miles wide at the coast of the bay between the mouths of the Prachinburi and Meklong, extends 85 miles inland. The plain continuously advances on the sea as large rivers fill the Gulf of Thailand with their sediments. Seaward, the delta grows at 15 to 20 feet per year. It is obvious that the process of accumulation of precipitation has been going on here for a long time. About a mile from the modern coastline stretches a flat sand bar of several rows of sand ridges, washed by the surf during the summer southwest monsoon blowing from the sea. The material with which these ridges are composed is carried out into the bay big rivers, the speed of which is especially high at low tide. The surf washed up several successive bars, and behind each of them well-protected lagoons formed, where fresh river water mixes with sea from the bay. In the lagoons, finer clastic material is deposited, gradually filling them. Elongated sandy ridges, interspersed with stripes of water, stretch parallel to the coast south of Chonburi, as well as along the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula, north of Sonkla and east of Chumpon. On the Bangkok plain itself, sandy ridges and lagoons are already covered by sandy deposits, but can be traced during excavations.
Inland, the level of the plain gradually rises. The streets of Bangkok (20 miles from the coast of the gulf) rise only about 6 feet above the level of the Gulf of Thailand; at Ayutthaya (60 miles from the coast) the plain rises to 13 feet, and at Paknampo (150 miles from the coast) it rises to 77 feet above sea level. The very gradual rise in the level of the Bangkok Plain (1:10,000) contributes to the fact that it is all flooded with flood waters. Up to Ayutthaya, the influence of the tides greatly affects the water level in the rivers and their tributaries.
Soil samples taken during drilling showed that the alluvial strata consist of alternating layers of silt, sand and clay. When drilling to a depth of 400 feet, the bedrock was not exposed. This plain of purely accumulative origin was formed in a distinctly pronounced synclinal depression, which extends in the meridional direction and is a continuation of the Gulf of Thailand.
Low hills rise to the very edges of the plain, behind which steep mountains rise at a short distance. To the east of the plain, near Kengkoy, the first limestone mountains appear. A railroad runs along this hilly foothill, leading to the Korat Plateau. Limestones extend to Puttabat and Lopburi. To the west of the plain, near the right bank of the Supanburi River, low hills stretch, separated by wide erosional plains lined with young sediments. Every year during high water, numerous rivers and streams cover the plain with a new layer of silt. At least once a year, most often in October-November, if the heavy rainfall that began in September does not stop, almost the entire Bangkok plain is hidden under water, turning into a huge freshwater lake, above the surface of which rise here and there, the trunks of sugar palms. , scattered among the fields, and occasionally, like islands, the piled buildings of villages rise, surrounded by coconut and areca palms or groves of bamboo.
Upper Plain and Marginal Plains
A narrow belt of foothills borders the Bangkok Plain in the north, west and east. The monotony of the plain along its edges is broken by numerous rock outcrops, low hills and mountains, which indicates the insignificant thickness of the deposits overlying the bedrock. A significant part of the area surrounding the plain was formed as a result of movements of the earth's crust. The Marginal and Upper Plains can be attributed only to the part where low-lying relief with alluvial deposits prevails. This may also include the coast of the Gulf of Thailand, especially the area south of Petburi.
The marginal plains stretch in a narrow strip along the western side of the Bangkok plain up to the bay, capturing the northern part of the Malay Peninsula. West of Supanburi and Maeklong, this area extends for about 35 miles, adjoining the Cordillera Central. In the east, the Marginal Plains include most of the valleys of the upper Supanburi and its tributaries.
To the north and northeast of the Bangkok Plain, the marginal zone includes a narrow, elongated valley of the Pasak River and a large triangle formed by the valleys of the Ping, Yom, and Nan rivers. Together they belong to the Upper Plain (Central Valley region).
Each of these regions is characterized by the presence of three interrelated landforms: narrow alluvial plains stretched along rivers; low uplifts, due to the outcrop of bedrocks of the hilly foothills, cutting here and there alluvial strata on the plains, and more significant elevations in the form of individual mountains and mountain ranges.
In the western part of the Marginal and Upper Plains, as well as in the interior of the Malay Peninsula, individual mountains or groups of mountains are found on the plain. In their structure, they resemble remnants, but many geologists who have conducted research on the Peninsula consider them to be ancient islands, the steep slopes of which have been worked out by marine abrasion. Such steeply rising mountains above the plains are usually composed of Permo-Carboniferous limestones. The mountains, composed of granites and quartzites, have more gentle slopes, but they are often scattered across the alluvial plain in the form of remnants. This area is also very typical of numerous isolated hills and mountain ranges, rising along the outskirts of closed mountain ranges. Limestones that have undergone recrystallization and have risen above the level of the plain are characterized by great resistance to weathering.
On the slopes of hills at different heights, there are voids associated with the dissolution of limestone in the form of funnels and channels. They testify to the activity of underground waters at a time when these remnant mountains were part of the limestone massifs that have now disappeared.
Alluvial deposits on the plains surrounding the mountains cover the almost horizontal surface of the limestones, dotted with sharp thin peaks, between which deep narrow gaps have formed. Such buried surfaces, with peaked peaks formed as a result of weathering, were discovered during the mining of tin ores on the Peninsula. But no evidence of the destructive activity of the sea, and the remains of marine fauna in the rocks of the peaked hills were found. The sedimentary deposits of these places are no different from those that are found at different levels hundreds of miles from the coast, inland. The sharp contrast between the plain and the sheer limestone outcrops is entirely due to subaerial processes.
CONTINENTAL HIGHLANDS
The Continental Highlands comprise all of the mountainous country north, northwest, and west of the Central Valley, all the way to the borders of Burma and Laos. This region can be divided into two sub-regions:
1) Northern mountains and valleys, or Northern Thailand, including all the territory north of the Central Valley, starting from 18 ° N. sh., that is, from Mekhongson to the province (changwata) of Nan, and
2) Western mountains, that is, the entire territory to the west of the Central Valley, south of 18 ° N. sh., including the provinces of Tak, Kanchanaburi and Ratchaburi, as well as the western parts of several provinces of the Central Valley.
Northern mountains and valleys, or Northern Thailand
This sub-region consists of mountain ranges running parallel to each other, which are separated by the Ping, Wang, Yom and Nan rivers flowing south into the Chao Phraya. These rivers, forming deep bends, flow through elongated basins with a leveled bottom. The basins are separated by gorges, which suggests that the runoff system developed on the ancient leveling surface. The basins located north of the Pipannam watershed are wide and often swampy. They are drained by rivers flowing north and flowing into the Mekong.
Numerous intermountain basins are located at different heights. In the east, in the basin of the Nan River, starting from its source, the largest basins are: Muangle (1000 feet above sea level), Muangpua (750 feet), Muangrim (700 feet) and the more extensive Muangnan Basin (650 feet), extending in the meridional direction for more than 20 miles. In the basin of the Yom River, which flows west of Nan, are the basins of Banoi, Muangpong (1150 feet), Muang Ngao (950 feet) and Muang Pre (525 feet). There are a number of basins in the basin of the Vang River, but above Lampang the valley of this river expands slightly, and there are only a few towns and trading settlements. In the basin of the Ping and its tributaries are the Chieng Dao Basin, the Muang Prao Basin, and the larger Chieng Mai Basin (1,000 feet above sea level).
Along the rivers flowing north into the Mekong are the intermountain basins of Muangpan, Muangpayao (about 1500 feet), Muangtheng (1150 feet), Chiengkam in the Ing river basin, as well as the Muangfang basin (1475 feet) and Chien Rai (1150 feet) in the river basin Mecoc.
Physiographic regions
In all these basins, the bedrock occurs close to the alluvium-lined surface and is often exposed in stream beds. The shallow occurrence of bedrock is also confirmed by numerous low hills scattered not only along the outskirts, but also in the middle of the plain. On some alluvial plains, stony rapids have formed at the outcrops of bedrock. Obviously, stable rocks protect such plains from erosion and are the local basis for erosion.
The mountainous relief of Northern Thailand develops under the influence of two different bases of erosion. For the northernmost part of the area, the erosion base is the Mekong, while in the south it is the Chao Phraya drainage basin.
In the north, two main tributaries flow into the Mekong. The first of these is the Mekok, whose sources lie to the north, in the territory of the Shan principalities (Burma), where it cuts through the Denlao ridge. Not far from the crossing of the Thai border, the Fang River flows into the Mekok on the right side, and below the city of Chien Rai - Lao. In the Fang Basin is the particularly large Muangfang Basin, which stretches from north to south for almost 30 miles. The second major tributary of the Mekong, the Ing, flows first south through the broad Muangpan and Banmechai valleys, then eastward through the Muangpayao valley, and finally turns north towards the Mekong through the Muangsan and Teng valleys. Each of these rivers has its own characteristics: they flow then wide
valleys, forming meanders, then along narrow deep gorges. The Mekong serves as the basis for the erosion of the Mekok and Inga river systems. Between the rivers that flow into the Mekong rise hard-to-reach mountain ranges, the peaks of which often exceed 5,000 feet, and sometimes 6,000 feet. One of the peaks west of the Fang River, near the border with Burma, reaches 7532 feet.
Most of the Northern Mountains and Valleys subregion is irrigated by the four main tributaries of the Chao Phraya and the rivers that flow into them. These are Ping, Wang, Yom and Nan. Between the systems of valleys with their intermountain basins, mountain ranges stretch, as a rule, in a meridional direction. A high, continuous ridge, reaching 6,601 feet northeast of Chieng Mai, separates the Wang and Ping basins. The same ridge separates the basin of the Ping and its tributary, the Chema. The main peak of this range, Doi Inthanon (8542 feet), is the highest mountain in Thailand. To the east - in the Vanga and Yoma basins - the height of the mountains decreases. There are no endless mountain ranges composed of stable granites, and even the highest peaks are composed of Permian Carboniferous limestones. The limestone peaks, characterized by the steepness of their slopes, dominate other uplifts composed of less hard rocks. These formidable peaks rarely exceed 3,500 feet. A typical example of such peaks is Mount Kaopadung east of Pre, 3556 feet high.
The whole mountainous country of the Chaopraya basin with wedged intermountain valleys is called Pipannam, which means "the spirit of a thousand rivers."
Even further east along the watershed between the Nan and Mekong rivers, significant elevations reappear. The peaks northeast of Muangnan reach 5500 feet. The ridge on the border between Thailand and Laos exceeds 6500 feet. Its highest peak reaches 7546 feet. There is not a single intermountain basin in the northeastern part of the subregion under consideration. This is a young mountainous landscape with sharply defined landforms, in which larger streams cut narrow, steep-sided gorges from 1300 to 1475 feet deep.
Compared with the well-explored complex of the Central Cordillera, whose echelon chains reach far south of the Malay Peninsula, the mountain ranges of Northern Thailand are much less studied. Northern Thailand forms part of the Salween drainage basin. The sub-area under consideration is mainly included in the province of Mae Hong Son and includes the valleys of the Meprai, Yuam, Taungyin rivers, small tributaries of the Salween. Part of the border with Burma runs along the Taungyin River and the Salween. The valleys of these rivers, cutting into the Central Cordillera, are usually narrow, with steep slopes. Intermontane basins do not occur. This site is more or less isolated from the rest of Northern Thailand.
Western mountains
This area includes a sparsely populated strip of the Central Cordillera along the border with Burma, west of the Chao Phraya valley, and extends approximately between 12° and 18° N. sh. There are many high dissected mountains, in which turbulent streams have cut deep canyons and narrow valleys. The Tanon-Thongchai range extending from the region of the Northern mountains and valleys ends at approximately 16°N. sh., branching into three almost parallel chains. The westernmost of them - Tanaosi, or Tenas-serim - begins at the Three Pagoda Pass (15 ° 18 ′ N), on the border with Burma, and stretches along the western border of Thailand, up to the Malay Peninsula. The second chain of bare limestone cliffs - the Meklong Mountains - stretches between the valleys of the Kwenoy and Kweyay rivers. The third chain separates Kweyai from the Central Valley. Its peaks sometimes exceed 5,000 feet, less often 6,000 feet.
Some tributaries of the Chaophraya, Salween and Mekong originate in the Western Mountains. Mountain rivers, as a rule, flow through steep gorges or valleys squeezed by mountains, the width of which rarely exceeds one to a mile and a half. The only exception is the Mesot Basin, a significant extension of the Moya Valley, a tributary of the Salwen. The other two major rivers of the Western Mountains, the Kwenoi and Kweyai, merge at Kanchanaburi in the Central Valley to form the Maeklong River.
The Maeklong Mountains clearly demonstrate the morphological relationship between the Western Mountains and their eastern foothills, which form the marginal zone of the Central Valley. Where the rivers Kveyay and Kvenoy merge, the mountains completely disappear; here the highlands recede before the expanding plains of purely alluvial origin. On these plains, the strike of mountain ranges and individual mountains of the remnant type follows the lines of tectonic folds. Upstream of the Kveyay and Kvenoy rivers, the alluvial plains narrow. The valley of the river Kveyay is wider than the valley of Kvenoya and has a large slope. This difference is due to the fact that the Tanaoshi range rises to the west, where its highest peak reaches 4300 feet. In the Meklong Mountains between Sisawat and Sanklaburi, a section of an ancient leveled surface with slight elevations has been preserved. The older and more mature mid-mountain country at 2,000 feet is surrounded by mountains 3,000 feet high, composed mostly of limestone.
Further west in the Tanaoshi shale zone and others mountain systems, along the border with Burma, no ancient mature relief has been found. There are no permeable limestones here either. The western slopes of the range, exposed to the heavy rainfall southwest monsoons, are heavily eroded and denuded. In addition, the full-flowing tributaries of the Kvenoy, flowing from steep slopes, are characterized by vigorous incision of their channels in the upper reaches. As a result, only young landforms and rows of high peaks are found in the most elevated parts of the range, which is a typical feature of the mountains located along the border with Burma.
KOPAT
The Korata region is a low saucer-shaped plateau with an area of 60 thousand square meters. miles drained by rivers flowing southeast. There are many lakes in the north of the region, in the south - areas flooded during the rainy season. From the north and east, Korat is bounded by the Mekong River and the mountains of Laos, from the west by the mountains of Petchabun and Dong Praien, and from the south by the Sankampeng and Dong Rek ledges. The undulating surface of the inner part of the Korat plateau is dotted with low hills and small lakes. During the rainy season, significant areas are flooded here, but in the dry season this region suffers from a lack of moisture. The soil horizon is insignificant almost everywhere, the soils are poor.
The northern and western fringes of the plateau reach a height of 400-700 feet, while Ubon, located in the southeastern part of Korat, is located at a level barely exceeding 200 feet. Most of the area is at an altitude of 300-650 feet above sea level. In the north and east of Korat, a group of hills rises above the plain, several hundred feet high, and near the Mekong, the height of several flat-topped mountains exceeds 1600 feet.
Almost all of the Korat is drained by a single river system, the Nammun River, which flows into the Mekong. Only on the northern and eastern outskirts of Korat there are several small rivers flowing into the Mekong. The rivers of the area under consideration usually flow in wide flat valleys, but their channels are usually strongly incised. During the rainy season, the rivers quickly overflow and flood wide floodplains. Due to the low relief, the decline in water is very slow, and therefore the lowest parts of the plateau are unsuitable for growing rice. In the lower reaches of the rivers flowing into the Mekong, floods occur annually. The flood waters of the Mekong itself inundate the lower reaches of its tributaries, mostly in the northeast of Korat, forming chains of lakes. The emergence of such lakes is explained by the damming of tributaries by silt, which precipitates with a decrease in the flow velocity. Every year during the dry period, these lakes almost dry up and refill with water during the Mekong summer flood.
Numerous flat swamps are typical for the surface of the Korat. Their occurrence is apparently associated with the dissolution of salt lenses, which are believed to be found in the red sandstone. Otherwise, it would be difficult to explain the high salinity of Korat soils, especially around such reservoirs. Groundwater rising during the summer rains dissolves salt and carries it to the upper horizons. Thus, during the dry period, accumulations of salts appear on the surface due to evaporation and the rise of soil moisture through capillaries from the lower horizons. Salt crusts develop on the surface in many places.
The marginal regions of Korat are of particular interest to geomorphologists. In the west and south of the region, a mountainous zone 20-25 miles wide stretches to a considerable height. On the western edge of the plateau, the summit of Kaopangey (15°38'N) rises to 3,000 feet, while the floor of the Pasak River valley at the foot of this peak on the west lies only about 300 feet above sea level. In the southwest corner of the plateau, at the junction of the western and southern escarpments, Mount Kaolem rises 4,300 feet and Mount Kaokampeng rises to more than 3,300 feet. Farther east, along the ledge that separates the Korat from the plains of Cambodia, the height of the plateau reaches 2,300 feet, and the Pupasak Mountains on the left bank of the Mekong below the mouth of the Nammun River, 4,600 feet.
SOUTH EAST COAST
This area covers the provinces of Trat, Chanthaburi, Rayong and South Chonburi. In the north it reaches the hills and mountains stretching along the southern edge of the Prachinburi (Ban Pakong) river valley, in the west and south it reaches the Gulf of Thailand and in the east it reaches the flat-topped hills of the Bantat ridge, along which the border between Thailand and Cambodia passes. The region of the South-Eastern coast includes an intensely dissected upland - in the north and in the central part, as well as a coastal plain in the south and west. Numerous rivers in this area flow mainly to the south. The main rivers are Chanthaburi, Prase, Ven and Trat. A number of mountain peaks in the area range in height from 2,500 to 5,000 feet.
The heavily indented coast of the bay is bordered by rocky islands overgrown with forests. Sichang Island, located in the northeast of the bay, opposite the port of Si Racha, forms a natural enclosed anchorage for large ships that cannot overcome the bar at the mouth of the Chaophraya. The largest island off the coast is Chang Island. It lies between Chanthaburi and Trat. Its area is about 70 sq. miles, and the summit rises nearly 3,000 feet. To the southeast of it is another large hilly island - Kut. Near the silty estuaries of the Prase and Ven rivers, there are many mangrove swamps. White sand beaches stretch along the coast.
Two main tectonic structures can be clearly seen in this area. One extends in a meridional direction along the coast facing the Bangkok Bay (to the north of Cape Lant), parallel to the depression in the Chaopraya valley, the western fault of the Korat plateau and the strike of the Central Cordillera chain. The other, extending from the northwest to the southeast, along the coast facing southwest, is more or less parallel to the fold system of the southwestern extremity of Korat and Cambodia. From the southeast to the northwest stretch the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia, whose peaks reach 3300-4500 feet, as well as the Bantat Range, which now separates the territories of Cambodia and Thailand, and the Chanthaburi Mountains, reaching 5400 feet in height.
In many places, both individual mountains and ranges reflect the geological structure of the area. In the Chanthaburi region, relatively high peaks such as Khao Saban and Khao Krat are granite batholiths. To the west of these mountains stretches a wide plain, on which, like islands, individual hills rise. The structure of the Khao Saban and Khao Krat mountains indicates that here the granites are covered by sedimentary deposits. Most characteristic The structure of this zone is a low anticline with granite cores. The alluvial plain east of Rayong is broken by highlands, the highest of which, Khao Kyu, reaches 2,300 feet. The peak, visible for many miles, serves as a coastal landmark for ships crossing the interior of the Gulf of Thailand; it is also one of the places of interest visited by tourists when traveling to Sichang Island. As a result of the subsidence of the coast, numerous coastal islands are the heights of the flooded strip. In their structure, they resemble the continental uplands of this region.
PENINSULA
The peninsular part of Thailand lies south of 12°50′ N. sh. The length of the crescent-shaped coastline from this parallel to the Malay border is almost 600 miles by air. The width of the Peninsula ranges from 10 to 135 miles. Plains form the coastal zone of the Peninsula, and its axial part is represented by mountains - a series of echelon-shaped mountain ranges and their branches. Between the mountains are small, heavily dissected plains or valleys. The East Coast sub-region of the Peninsula differs greatly from the West Coast in terms of relief, climate, ethnic composition and economy.
For their comparison, both subareas are considered together.
Along the western edge of the Peninsula stretches the Tanaoshi Range (Tenas-serim), starting in the Western Mountains. The border between Burma and Thailand runs along this ridge. South of Prachuap Kirikan, where the width of the Peninsula in its Thai part is less than 20 miles, the Tanaosi range breaks abruptly into a narrow coastal plain. However, almost immediately the next ridge begins (perhaps this is a continuation of the Tanaoshi ridge), extending in the direction from north-northeast to south-southwest. The ridge reaches its greatest height in the north (4040 feet), but south of the ridge falls - in the vicinity of Chumpon it barely reaches 300 feet. The basin of the river Kra, or Pakchan, the ridge is divided into two branches; western - Burmese and eastern - Thai. The eastern branch, the so-called Phuket Range, runs south from the Kra Isthmus and continues into Phuket Island. This range is replete with granite batholiths, many of which exceed 3,300 feet. Rich placer deposits of tin have been discovered here. This is the most important tin mining area in Thailand.
East of the Phuket Ridge at approximately 8°20'N. sh. the second ridge of the Peninsula originates. It extends south from Khao Panom Bencha, 4583 feet high, through the province of Krabi, ending at Koh Lanta with a peak reaching 1614 feet.
The eastern, main ridge of the Peninsula begins at Tao Island, off the East Coast, at 10°05′N. sh. Continuing on the islands of Koh Phangan and Samui, it reaches the coast of the Peninsula east of Bandon and stretches along it until the territory of Malaya. It is commonly referred to as the Nakhon Srithamarat Range. The northern part of this granite range is especially high. The peaks on Koh Phangan and Koh Samui reach 2057 and 2086 feet respectively. The summit southeast of Bandon reaches 4,396 feet, while the majestic Mount Khaoluang, west of Nakhon Srithamarat, reaches 5,860 feet. As in the high part of the Phuket Range, the main alluvial deposits of tin are concentrated in these mountains. Most of the peaks in the southern part of the range do not reach 3300 feet, and in places the range disappears completely under the sediments of the alluvial plains. Its southern tip is a chain of separate low ridges and peaks. The southernmost peaks of the range reach heights of 2000-2300 feet.
Between the ridges of Nakhon-Sritamarat and Phuket there are lowlands with separate hills. One of them, Khao Panom Bencha, reaches an altitude of 4500 feet, but most are much lower.
To the east of the southern part of the Nakhon-Sritamarat ridge, three parallel ridges stretch in the meridional direction. The fourth, separated by a wide alluvial plain in the Sonkla region, crosses the Thai border and continues into the territory of Kedah in Malaya. The fifth, the Pattani Ridge, lies further east. His South part separates the territory of Kedah (Federation of Malaysia) and the province of Pattani. Farther east is the sixth range, sometimes referred to as the Taluban Range, after a river in southern Pattani Province. This is the main range of Malaya. It stretches south towards Malacca and reaches an altitude of 7,000 feet. Several peaks in the ranges of southern Thailand - Pattani and Taluban - rise almost 5,000 feet.
Along the saddle of the ridge on the Thai-Burmese border runs an ancient trade route along the Peninsula, through the isthmus of Kra. This isthmus is only about 15 miles wide from the Pak Chan River in the west to a small coastal stream in the east (neither of these rivers is accessible to modern oceanic
x ships). The height of the pass in the central part of the isthmus is approximately 230 feet. The construction of a canal across the isthmus (this project has been repeatedly put forward) would significantly reduce the duration of the journey and the cost of freight on the lines between Europe and the Far East, but at the same time the construction of such a canal would undermine Singapore's trade position. In this regard, the isthmus has long been of great political and geographical importance.
In general, the East Coast of the Peninsula is flat and regular. There are only a few bays here, but there are many beaches stretching for long distances, especially at Nakhon Sritamarat, Sonkla, Pattani. The coastal plain is 3 to 22 miles wide. In addition, the valleys and basins of several rivers protrude far into the depths of the Peninsula. To the north of Sonkla there is a large inland sea-Lake Tale Sap.
The West Coast coastline is less regular and heavily indented by estuaries. Like Phuket Bay, the West Coast is teeming with islands but few beaches. The mountains approach the sea in many places, and the coastal plain is generally very narrow. There are many mangrove swamps. The coast of the Pakchan River resembles a flooded valley. During the hydraulic mining of alluvial tin deposits in Takuap and Phuket, the remains of buried mangrove trees were found. The wide sandy belt that borders the land on both the East and West coasts does not feature sand dunes. This is probably due to the fact that the period of strong winds blowing from the sea is also a period of heavy rains. Sand, daily soaked with rainwater, becomes wet and is not blown away by the winds.
The plains of the Peninsula are composed of sediments from rivers and streams flowing through them. The strata located directly on the bedrock are rich in tin. This indicates a re-displacement of sediments.
A similar process occurs at a relatively high rate during the rainy season. At this time of the year, rainwater flows into the valleys, overflowing deeply incised stream beds and flooding the plains. The layers of alluvium saturated with water easily set in motion, and thus the rivers lay their channels in completely different parts of the plain.
The thickness of sediments in the valley depends on the size of the flood. As a result of the repeated rise in the water level in the rivers during the rainy season, they overflow their banks, flooding the plain and covering it with sediment. In the dry season, the water subsides so much that it does not even completely fill the riverbeds. Thus, during the period of high water, the channels of the streams are strongly eroded. As a result of the constant wandering of the rivers along the plain, the decrease in the general level of the plain is very small. This, in turn, leads to deep erosion of bedrock overlain by alluvial sediments. This process of formation of plains is typical not only for the alluvial plains of the Peninsula, but also for the plains of the whole of Thailand, formed in conditions of low hilly relief.
LANDSCAPE AND HYDROGRAPHIC NETWORK
Various rocks are found in Thailand: sedimentary rocks, metamorphosed in places; metamorphic and sedimentary rocks with embedded batholiths and stocks; relatively young medium volcanic rocks and, in places, solidified flows and domes of basalt. Many of the strata, composed of relatively ancient rocks, have been subjected to the process of folding to one degree or another or have been disturbed by faults.
important role in education modern relief plays the physical and chemical weathering that various rocks undergo in the humid tropics.
Granites and limestones tend to be more resistant to erosion than other sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. Many mountain ranges and individual mountains are composed of granite, the slopes of which are much steeper than those of the same type of elevations in the temperate zone. In a tropical climate, granites are strongly weathered. Typically, young rock is overlain by a layer of soil or weathered rock that is 50 feet or more thick. Landforms developed on limestones are the most remarkable feature of the Thai landscape. Karst phenomena are observed wherever there are limestone outcrops.
The most typical clastic rocks in Thailand are sandstone, shale and their metamorphic forms. They differ from each other in their resistance to erosion. In vast coastal areas, these rocks are heavily eroded by river and sea erosion.
HYDROGRAPHIC NETWORK
The modern hydrographic network of Northern and Western Thailand was apparently laid down at the end of the Tertiary period. Perhaps, by that time, an extensive peneplain had already formed, leveling the ancient folding. Then, at the end of the Tertiary period, due to the movements of the earth's crust, the channels of the main rivers were blocked by the formed folds, and the resulting basins were flooded. This picture gradually changed. With the deposition of sediments, the hydrographic network more and more acquired modern outlines. The uplift of the area towards the end of the Tertiary rejuvenated the rivers of Northern Thailand. Now the channels of the main rivers deeply cut the surface of the ancient peneplain. Where the riverbeds were worked out in soft rocks, gently sloping lowlands formed. In other places, where rivers cut through stable rocks, gorges and gorges arose. Most of Northeast Thailand is occupied by the Korat Basin, drained by the Nammun River. At the end of the Tertiary period, a series of sedimentary rocks of the Korat was submerged in the strata of a vast tectonic basin. Thus, the branching channels of the Nammun River system are undoubtedly located on the surface of a deep horizon of homogeneous bedrock. Be that as it may, in the southeast, the Nammun River crosses the edge of the structural basin and flows into the Mekong along its ancient course.
Significant tectonic movements at the end of the Tertiary period shaped the Chao Phraya River region, beginning a sedimentation cycle that continues to this day. The original northern coast of the Gulf of Thailand was apparently somewhere in the Uttaradita region. As a result of sediment accumulation, the coast gradually moved southward.
On the Peninsula, the modern river system has essentially remained unchanged since the late Tertiary period. In the northern part of Polu Island - up to Chumpon in the south - the rivers flowing to the east and flowing into the bay, as a rule, flow in the upper reaches along steep young gorges, and in the coastal zone - along open valleys worked out in folded rocks. The lower reaches of many river valleys on the western side of the Peninsula have been flooded as a result of recent land subsidence. In the middle and upper reaches, the steeply dipping channels of these flows run through mature valleys, crossed in many places by transverse and diagonal faults. As a result of Late Tertiary time shifts, several small basins formed in this area.
Modern river system of Thailand.
The heart of mainland Thailand is the Chao Phraya River Basin. The Chao Phraya originates at Paknampo at the confluence of the northern rivers Pinga, Wanga, Yoma and Nana, flowing into the Upper Plain of the Central Valley. Downstream, small rivers and Pasak flow into the main channel of the river and into some of its branches from the right side. In addition, several tributaries flow from the left side. Chao Phraya carries its waters past Bangkok and flows into the Gulf of Thailand to the south, at Samut Prakan (Paknam); somewhat to the west, its main channel, the Nakon-Chaisi (Supanburi), flows into the bay.
Along with the Chao Phraya, two more rivers flowing into the Gulf of Thailand participate in the formation of the Bangkok Plain. These are Maeklong in the west and Prachin in the east. The first is formed from the confluence of the rivers Kveyay and Kwe-noi, which flow from the Western Mountains and merge at Kanchanaburi. Prachin originates in the mountains located along the Southeast coast and the Cambodian border. In addition, the Nakon-Nayok River flows into Prachin, draining the steep slope of the southern Korat plateau.
The entire Korat region and the northern part of Northern Thailand are included in the Mekong basin, great river South-East Asia. At Korat, the Nammun River and its main tributary, the Namsi, flow eastward into the Mekong east of Ubon and north of Pakse (Laos). All other rivers of the Korat not included in this system also flow into the Mekong along the border. In addition, the Mekong receives several small rivers of Northern Thailand.
A vast mountainous region in the north and west of Thailand drains westward to the Salween River, which forms part of the border between Burma and Thailand. Further, the Salwen flows through Burmese territory and flows into the Andaman Sea.
Along the Southeast Coast and on the Peninsula major rivers and there are no river basins. Small rivers and streams flow from the surrounding mountains and flow into the Gulf of Thailand in the area of the Southeast coast and the East coast of the Peninsula, into the Andaman Sea and the Strait of Malacca - in the area of the West coast of the Peninsula.
Geology The peninsula follows the Thai-Burmese border from the Maeklong river system to the Kra Isthmus. Further, it goes almost in the center of the Peninsula along the highest peaks to the border with Malaya.
THEOLOGY
In the countries of Southeast Asia, geological and stratigraphic studies were started many years ago by geologists of the European colonial administration. The first work in Thailand was undertaken only in the 30s of the XX century. Until that time, practically the only geological studies of Thailand were made in 1912 by Hogbom, who visited many parts of the country during his four months of stay, and by W. Lee 2 in 1921-1922.
Field geological work in Thailand is hampered by the fact that almost everywhere the bedrock is hidden under a thick layer of weathering products. A lot of difficulties are caused to geologists by dense tropical vegetation, the absence in many parts of the country of cuts for laying roads and the almost complete absence of mines and quarries. Geological surveys began in the 1930s by the mining department of Siam, who invited several young geologists who had been educated in Europe to their service. In 1949 and 1950 A team of geologists was sent to Thailand by the US Geological Survey. The results of their research, carried out jointly with Thai geologists, are summarized in a geological report 3. It served as the main source of information given below.
SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Phuket Series (Cambrian)
Metamorphic sedimentary rocks cover a wide area along the axis of the central fold and the western side of the Peninsula, continuing north into lower Burma. In Thailand, they stretch from Phuket in the south to the latitude of Rathburi in the north and are found in the region of granite intrusions, in the Khaoluang mountain range, in the eastern part of the Peninsula. Almost everywhere the dip is so steep that it is impossible to determine their thickness and succession. In a railway excavation between Tungsong and Ronpibun, numerous layers of fine-grained sandstone are seen interspersed with fine-grained and coarse-grained shale. Most outcrops contain dark schists with well-pronounced bedding, quartzite, and mudstone.
The only known fossil finds in the Phuket series are located at the northeast cape of Tongka Bay on Phuket Island. Here, imprints of fossilized algae were found in dark gray or slate shale.
Tungsong Limestone (Ordovician)
Outcrops of dark (up to black) limestone are found in the southern part of the Peninsula. Outcrops of gray-blue crystalline dolomitic limestone are found further north - on the island of Sichang, near Siracha, and in ridges northwest of Kanchanaburi. It is assumed that they do not differ in age from the limestones of the Peninsula. These limestones are characterized by inclusions of pyrite crystals, while pyrite is very rare or absent in limestones of the Permian period, for example, in Tungsong. The thickness of the measured horizontal limestone layers is almost 9000 feet. Clay and sand inclusions are noted on the surfaces of the formations. In thin, discontinuous layers of siliceous shale east of Tung Song, impressions resembling sponge needles are found. To the west of Patalung, weathered dark sandy limestone has been found turned into sand.
Kanchanaburi Series (Silurian, Devonian or Early Carboniferous)
Clastic sedimentary rocks, in many places metamorphosed into slates, phyllite and quartzite, extend from the border with Burma along the western edge of Thailand to the border with Malaya. The thickness of the series of seams in Northern Thailand appears to be similar to the thickness of the seams in the southern region. More precise measurements are impossible due to the close interlacing of faults and folds.
The rocks belonging to the Kanchanaburi series, as a rule, were subjected to deep weathering. Slate or schist, phyllite or mudstone, and quartzite or limestone, found along river channels, have the same dark grey-green hue. Paleontological finds, the number of which is still small, indicate that the age of the rocks in this series ranges from the Silurian to the early Carboniferous period.
Rathburi Limestones (Carboniferous and Permian)
Light gray recrystallized limestone, which is composed of many hills and high cliffs, is found in all parts of the country. Many of the limestone massifs are isolated remnants or hills resting on older rocks. At the same time, limestone rocks are common in a vast area of the western part of Central Thailand (along the western edge of the Korat plateau). On the Peninsula, and to a lesser extent in the north, the limestones form narrow, isolated belts that stretch along the mountain ranges. limestone layers,
obviously, they underwent a process of folding, and in places the limestone recrystallized, although to a lesser extent than the underlying metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. The thickness of such limestone ranges from 3,000 to 13,000 feet.
The lower layers of limestone contain numerous thin layers and inclusions of siliceous schist with fossils of Permian age. Widely found, in places in the form of marble, recrystallized limestone. Typically, limestone shades range from light gray to almost white with numerous pinkish veins. In some places, layers of limestone, recrystallized into dolomite, have been widely developed. However, post-Permian rocks are not represented everywhere by limestone or marble.
Korat series (Triassic or Jurassic)
Thick deposits of continental sandstone and conglomerate cover much of Eastern Thailand and are the main rock in Korat. Similar strata fill part of the intermountain basins in the northwest and extend south along the western coast of the Gulf of Thailand. In the extreme south of the Peninsula, quartzite, phyllite and fibrous coal shale (in the northern strike of the strata) have been found, which are listed as rocks of the Triassic period on recent maps in Malaysia. It is likely that this is the age of some of the rocks found in Korat.
The upper horizon of the strata is characterized by a vast weathered surface overlain by deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary alluvium. The Korat series includes strata of gray-green sandy shale and marly fine-grained limestone with inclusions and concretions, as well as red and purple sandstone, conglomerate and shale, which make up the bulk of sedimentary rocks. In some places, pebbles and gravel from the Ratbury limestone are found in the thickness of the conglomerate. The presence of salt springs and springs in Korat indicates that salt deposits can be found in the thickness of the layers.
In the vicinity of Mesota, a breed was discovered, which received the name "Kamavkala". It is composed of dense gray limestone mixed with red quartz sandstone and conglomerate and contains fossils from the lower half of the Middle Jurassic. Limestone layers are interspersed with brown and red quartz sandstone and conglomerates and, obviously, have a consistent occurrence with the above- and
underlying continental deposits. Apparently, these sedimentary rocks were formed on the site of a NARROW sea bay. Layers of young limestones and conglomerates in the Korat area lie horizontally or form gentle folds.
YOUNG SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Tertiary rocks
Lacustrine or river deposits have been found in six intermountain basins of Northern Thailand, and, apparently, the seventh basin was also filled with them. At Memo and Mechang, near Lampang, the shale, shale, sand, and marl beds of the Mesot series, several feet thick, contain sedimentary rocks with lignite inclusions. Similar sedimentary rocks have been found in the Merim Valley north of Chieng Mai.
In the Mefang basin, as a result of drilling, inclined layers of coal-bearing-sedimentary rocks were revealed.
On the Peninsula, the Krabi Series, whose age coincides with the age of the Mesot Series, can be traced in eight basins. Among them is the Kyansa basin southwest of Surat Thani; at Hinru east of Pang; at Khinak, west of Krabi; in Krabi; in Simpun, northeast of Krabi; in Kantang southwest of Taptang; at Bukitarang south of Sadao and at Betong. Local sedimentary rocks are interspersed with layers of lignite. Lignite deposits are especially famous in the Krabi region. Most of the rocks are overlain by later alluvium, with the exception of their outcrops in river beds and on the coast.
Terrace deposits and Quaternary alluvium
Such deposits are found in almost all river valleys in Thailand. Alluvium covers the entire Central Valley - the Upper Plain and the Bangkok Plain, through which the Chao Phraya River flows. Separate islands of thick alluvial deposits are also scattered throughout the Korat, the valleys of the relatively large rivers of Northwestern Thailand and in various places along the coastal plain bordering the Gulf of Thailand, especially along the Eastern coast of the Peninsula. Alluvial deposits in the Peninsula and Western Thailand, containing placers of tin and tungsten, are important.
Most of the terraced and alluvial deposits are less than 150 feet thick. The low terraces along the West Coast of the Peninsula lie between 10 and 40 feet above sea level, and their maximum thickness is about 50 feet. However, along the East Coast of the Peninsula, the thickness of the alluvial stratum reaches 100 feet, and on the Bangkok Plain, near Bangkok, hard rocks are not visible even at a depth of more than 1000 feet. In the basins of Northwestern Thailand, clastic rocks of the Pleistocene era or later origin are quite common.
Areas of development of Quaternary deposits are almost always observed
along rivers and on shallow seashores. On the Bangkok Plain, there are undoubtedly delta deposits, as well as marl deposited on the bottom of the sea or estuary; sand and gravel. At the opening of the quaternary
sediments in them were found sand, gravel, silt and silt.
A characteristic feature of many leveled surfaces, sea and river terraces, plateaus, as well as highlands such as mesas, are the residual layers of laterite covering them, which, as a rule, is speckled with red and brown spots and has a porous or bean composition. Laterite owes its origin to rocks of various geological ages, differing in their physical and chemical properties. The stage of development of laterites in Thailand is obviously determined by the geological age of the rocks and their exposure. Young laterites are characteristic of young low terraces.
VOLCANIC ROCKS
Gneisses and schists (Pre-Permian)
Some areas of Thailand are composed of gneisses and schists. Outcrops of these rocks form an elongated belt west of Chiengmai, west of Rakheng, in a small area northwest of Kanchanaburi, in the Hua Hin region south of Petburi and west of Bandon.
These areas have a north-northwest strike along a line coinciding with the strike of gneiss outcrops. In addition, there are significant outcrops of volcanic rocks in the provinces of Chonburi and Rayong and in the northwestern corner of Korat northeast of My Angley.
Basic and ultrabasic rocks (Triassic)
This group of rocks consists of diorite, gabbro and pyroxenite. Some of them are serpentinized in places. The rocks of this group are found only in the north near Uttaradit and Chien Rai. Dikes of diorite, gabbro, and pyroxenite, small plugs, and stocks intrusive in metasedimentary rocks can be traced along the lowland along the Nan River to the northeast of Uttaradit. Outcrops of coarse-grained gabbro with intrusions of diorite and granite were found on the hills along the southern edge of the floodplain of the Mechan River near the ancient Chiengsen and along the upper reaches of the Mechan and Mekok in the province of Chiengrai.
Granite (Triassic or Upper Cretaceous)
Granite is the most common volcanic rock in Thailand. It forms stocks and batholiths in the thickness of Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks and is exposed on the surface as a result of erosion of these rocks. Most of the western mountain ranges are composed of granite. In areas of domed structures, an accumulation of minerals of great economic importance is possible.
In most cases, the rocks are composed of biotite-muscovite gneisses. The mica schists associated with gneiss distribution areas are mainly of the biotite type found in the west of the country and muscovites in the east.
In the north and east, granite ridges extend in the meridional direction. Granite outcrops can be traced in some areas of a large ridge passing east of Chiengmai. These exits stretched from Pai far to the south, up to the region (ampe) of Mesot. Another granite range starts from 15°N. sh. and stretches south through the provinces of Kanchanaburi and Prachuap Kirikan. A wide granite belt originates near the border of the Shan states to the north-east of Muang-fang and extends in undulating uplifts south to the Kuntan tunnel at the latitude of Lampang. Apparently, this belt continues further south through the province of Tak to the northern tip of the province of Kanchanaburi.
The Peninsula has six major en echelon granite ridges. The most important of them from an economic point of view, stretching with short breaks from Ranong south to the island of Phuket, is known for the richest and most productive deposits of tin ores. The second most important ridge begins on the islands of Paygan and Koh Samui and continues in a southerly direction on the mainland from Sichon to Satul. The third granite outcrop zone is located east of Hat Yai and south of Sonkla and extends southward into the territory of Malaysian Kedah. South of Napradu, the granite outcrops stretch for almost 10 miles and form a fourth belt extending through Betong as far as the Malaysian state of Perak. The fifth granite range begins in the Saiburi region and runs south to Kelantan. The last of the six-granite Tomo Range above the Taluban River.
Granite outcrops found in several areas of Southeast Thailand are especially extensive near Chonburi and Chanthaburi. Granites in the Chonburi region are found in a mountain range that runs near the eastern coast of the bay from Chonburi to Rayong. In the region of Chantaburi, to the east of this range, granites can be traced north as far as the province of Pratburi. A lot of evidence indicates that the intrusions of the granite rocks of Thailand occurred twice - in the early and late Mesozoic. According to the mineralogical composition, local granites differ somewhat from each other, but they all belong to the type of hornblende-biotite granites. The exception is a young granite stock, which is associated with the most important deposits of tungsten and tin in Mesarieng (Maekhongson province). Only two granite formations have been found on the Peninsula, which can be classified as ancient intrusions. One of them is located north of Krabi, the other is south of Bandar. But neither one nor the other is promising for tin.
Diorite and quartz diorite (Tertiary)
Diorite and quartz diorite in the form of domes, stocks, and small batholiths are intrusion into the Korat Series beds and ancient rocks in areas east of Prathburi, north of Lopburi, northwest of Petburi, and northeast of Chiengrai. Vein and alluvial gold deposits occur in diorite intrusions northeast of Lopburi and east of Prathburi.
Basalt (Tertiary)
In Thailand, basalt is widely distributed in the form of solidified lava flows, dikes and plugs. The largest of the basalt flows stretches for about 12.5 miles along the railroad east of Lampang. It has barely been eroded and appears comparatively young.
In addition, there are basalt outcrops southwest of Sukhothai, northwest of Lopburi and south of Sisaket, and its most extensive areas are located south of Buriram. Placer deposits of sapphires and rubies in the Chanthaburi region are associated with several scattered plugs and flows of nepheline basalt, as well as placers of sapphires north of Kanchanaburi.
Andesitic and rhyolite porphyries (Tertiary)
Outcrops of andesitic porphyry in the form of stocks, dikes, and veins cut through by dikes and small veins of younger rhyolitic porphyry occur near Saraburi, northeast of Lopburi, west of Petburi, and east of Uttaradit. Andesite is usually green or purple, while rhyolite yellow color or buff. Andesitic porphyry is intruded into rocks of the Korat series and older rocks.
HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
Thailand is divided into three structural regions: the Korat, the Chao Phraya Basin, and the northern and western fold systems extending south across the Peninsula. Folding processes occurred between the Indochinese massif in the east and the Himalayan compression zone in the west. The latter stretched through the territory of Burma and Malaya up to Indonesia.
The main mountain ranges are folds of sedimentary rocks running from north to south with characteristic batholith intrusions. Most of the surface layers have disappeared under the influence of weathering and erosion. The outcrops are mainly rocks such as granite, as well as dense, chemically pure limestones and, in some places, quartzites. Rainwater easily seeps through limestone layers that do not contain any impurities, leaving no traces of less soluble minerals on their surface. As the surface layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks weathered, cassiterite, a tin stone, accumulated in the lower layers of alluvium at the foot of the ridges on the Peninsula.
The limited information on the geology of Thailand does not allow any complete description of the history of geological structures. The formation of sedimentary rocks begins in the early Paleozoic, if the assumption of the Cambrian origin of the rocks of the Phuket series is correct. Granite pebbles and boulders of an earlier, apparently Precambrian, origin were found in the thickness of slate shale from the Phuket series. For most of the Paleozoic period, the territory of the country was a zone of marine sediments. Most of the ancient Paleozoic sedimentary rocks are clastic material, now forming thick deposits of shale and sandstone or their metamorphic equivalents. The only exceptions are sandstone and limestone from the Ordovician period. True, thin layers of limestone or marble are also found in other places in the thickness of older rocks. The culminating point in the formation of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks was the extensive limestone deposits at Rathbury. Most of the country's territory was uplifted, and the rocks of the entire region underwent regional metamorphism as a result of tectonic movements, approximately coinciding with the Zaalian and Appalachian orogeny. This orogeny covered most of territory of Thailand. In the eastern part of the Korat Plateau and in the Chaopray depression, the older layers are usually overlain, and in some places exposed. As a result of compression, which ranged from moderate to strong, Paleozoic layers form folds that extend northward. In many places, isoclinal folds are traced. The more gentle dip of the limestone strata of the Rathburi massif compared to the underlying rocks indicates either that the limestone is unconformable with older Paleozoic sedimentary rocks that have undergone intense folding, or that the limestones were thrust over them. By all indications, the thrust occurred in the southwestern corner of the Mesarieng Basin in Northern Thailand.
The widespread intrusion of granitic magma dates back to the early Mesozoic. Not metamorphosed and only slightly disturbed, the Korat sandstones (of Triassic or Jurassic origin) overlie granite stocks and batholiths intruded into the Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. Outcrops of older hornblende-biotite granite occur in the hills of Central and Northern Thailand. Along with this widespread intrusion, there are local intrusions of basic and ultrabasic rocks.
Exposures of younger biotite-muscovite granites are widespread in the Peninsula and along the Burmese border. Folding of the lower layers of the Korat series along the western marginal zone of the Korat and layers in Mesota, probably belonging to the Early Cretaceous period, is indisputable evidence of a rather late Mesozoic orogeny. During most of the Mesozoic, the country's surface level barely exceeded sea level. The formation of widespread deposits of continental sandstone, shale and conglomerate of the Korat series dates back to this time. During the Jurassic, the sea apparently encroached on the territory of the country up to the zone stretching along the Burmese border, near the Mesot basin.
At the beginning of the Tertiary time, most of the country was land and a well-developed river network arose. In the middle or the end of the Tertiary, the formation of folds and faults begins, which led to the development of structural basins in the north of the country and on the Peninsula. In the north, there is a process of accumulation of river and lake sediments in basins. On the Peninsula, especially along the coast, this process was accompanied by the accumulation of marine sediments. As a result of the incessant movements of the earth's crust, the layers of basin deposits turned out to be slightly or moderately deformed, and in some places disturbed by normal faults.
In the late Tertiary time, volcanic and intrusive activity began throughout the territory. The results of this activity are basalt veins and dikes in the provinces of Chanthaburi, Trat, Kanchanaburi and Lampang, as well as isolated stocks of diorite cut by later intrusions of andesitic and rhyolitic porphyry in the central part of the country. By the end of the Tertiary time, most of the territory experienced uplift, accompanied by the formation of folds and faults.
Starting from the Quaternary period and up to the present day, sediments brought by the tributaries of the Chaopraya have been accumulating in the Chaopray depression. As a result of erosion in the upper reaches and alluvium of sediments in the lower reaches, the level of the channels of these rivers is leveled. The accumulation of Quaternary alluvium deposits in the river valleys of the Peninsula has resulted in the formation of numerous tin-rich deposits.
In general, the mountain building zone moved westward as geological epochs changed. The prevalence throughout the territory of steeply dipping normal faults and renewed thrusts, interspersed with local eruptions of basaltic lava, is evidence of the Late Tertiary orogeny. At this time there was an uplift of the Korat and a subsidence of Tertiary and Quaternary deposits in the intermountain basins in the North and on the Peninsula. The slight tilt of the Peninsula to the northwest is of later date. As a result, its gently sloping East coast, facing the Gulf of Thailand, turns into a wide sea.
its plain, while the coastline of the Andaman Sea, as in Phuket Bay, is strongly indented, replete with capes and coastal islands.
Chapter II
Soils, vegetation
and the animal world
soil
Much of Thailand's soils are poor in nutrients. Nevertheless, 85% of the country's population lives off agriculture, which
Essay on economic and social geography
Completed:
Kuzichev Anton 10 "A" class 1999
(I rented it out in the city of Zhukovsky, Moscow Region, school No. 9, at the end of the 10th
class, Kucherenko Galina Fedorovna. Excellent rating (5). 1999. )
page
1. General information.
1.1 Geographic location.
2. History of Thailand.
1. History of Thailand from the 12th to the 20th century. 2.
2. History of Thailand in the XX century.
3. Relations between Russia and Thailand. 4.
3. Nature.
1. Relief.
2. Climate.
3. Inland waters.
5. Vegetation.
6. Animal world.
4. Population.
1. General characteristics.
2. Holidays and celebrations.
3. Traditions.
4. Religion.
5. Bangkok - "City of Angels". 10.
5. Household.
1. Features of the formation of the economy. 12.
2. Economy.
3. Foreign trade.
4. General characteristics of the economy and foreign capital in
economy.
5. Internal differences.
6. Agriculture.
6. Industry.
7. Armed forces.
8. Transport.
10. Sights of Thailand.
1. History of the development of culture.
2. "Treasures of mankind".
3. Tourism objects of Bangkok.
11. Specific features.
1. Nutrition.
2. Miscellaneous.
1. General information.
THAILAND (Thailand), or Prated Thai, Kingdom of Thailand (from thai -
names of a group of local tribes and English. land - country), (until 1939 and in 1945-48
Siam), a state in Southeast Asia, on the peninsulas of Indochina and
seas. Population 57.8 million, mostly Thais, Lao, and Chinese,
Malays, Mons and Khmers, Persians and Indians, etc. The official language is Thai.
The state religion is Buddhism. Type of government - constitutional
monarchy. The head of state is the king. Legislature - bicameral
National Assembly (Senate and House of Representatives). The capital is Bangkok.
Administrative-territorial division: 7 regions, including 73
Changwata (provinces). The monetary unit is the Thai baht. Big cities:
Chiang Mai, Phuket, Thonburi, Songkhla, Nakhon Sawan. Flag (see fig. 1).
1. Geographic location.
THAILAND is a state in Southeast Asia, on the peninsulas of Indochina and
Malacca, washed by the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand of the South China
seas. It borders Myanmar to the west and northwest and Myanmar to the north and east.
Laos and Kampuchea, in the south with Malaysia. Thailand is the third largest (total
area 514 thousand sq. km) a state in Southeast Asia, after India and
The extreme northern point of Thailand is 20 ° 54 "North latitude and 99 ° 86"
east longitude.
The extreme southern point is 5 ° 68 "North latitude and 101 ° 13" E
The westernmost point of Thailand is 18° 38" N and 97° 49"
east longitude.
The extreme eastern point is 16 ° 68 "northern latitude and 105 ° 67" eastern
2. History of Thailand.
2.1 History of Thailand from the 12th to the 20th century.
Homeland of Siamese twins and blue-eyed Siamese cats several times
changed names. The ancient history of Thailand is shrouded in mystery: exact information about
there is no emergence of the Tai people. According to some assumptions, one of the tribes
descended to the Gulf of Thailand from the Chinese province of Sichuan. In the year when
the steppe Horde attacked Rus' (1238), the tai, merging with the monks, founded
the first capital of his kingdom - Sukhothai, which lasted only 150 years.
It was swallowed up by another Thai kingdom - Ayutthaya (Ayutthaya). It lasted
more than four centuries, during this time 33 kings ruled in it, and the eponymous
the capital has become one of the largest cities in the world. It is Ayutthaya
established in the 16th century the first diplomatic and commercial relations with
Europeans, for starters - with the Portuguese sailors.
Ayutthaya was constantly at war with its neighbors: sometimes with a great empire
Khmer, then with the kingdom of Burma. In 1767, the Burmese army burned
Ayutthaya down. It was a dark day in Thai history: no one could tell
whether to revive an independent state. But 500 Thai troops fled
to Kampuchea and there they began to proclaim their leaders as kings. erected on
throne in 1782, General Pya Chakri, named Rama I, laid the foundation
reigning dynasty and founded the modern capital of Thailand - Bangkok.
In the 19th century, the countries of Southeast Asia found it difficult to resist
rapid process of colonization. But despite territorial concessions,
Thailand, at that time Siam, was never a colony of anyone, justifying
one of its names - Muang Thai - Land of the free. The name of Siam
awarded the country by neighbors, comes from the Sanskrit "sayam" -
"black". However, in another spelling, this word means "beautiful",
“blue-green”, which actually appear to the gaze of the traveler
landscapes of the coast of the Gulf of Thailand. (Thailand has been called the country since 1949
The first news about Thailand was brought to Europe at the beginning of the 17th century.
the Portuguese. By the middle of the last century, the British captured India and part of
Burma. At the same time, the French occupied Cambodia and Laos. Between dominions
English and French colonizers lay a large feudal
state of Siam. Both England and France sought to capture it.
In the end, the diplomats of both countries agreed to leave Siam
independent state. Taking advantage of military and economic weakness
country, the colonialists imposed unequal treaties on it and turned it into
semi-colony. From Siam, the colonialists exported rice, valuable teak and
rubber, and industrial products were imported there.
2.2 The history of Thailand in the XX century.
Until 1932, Siam had an absolute monarchy, i.e., all power in the country
belonged to the king, and he was revered there as a god. In the history of Siam
the case when a member of the royal family drowned in front of the courtiers;
it was enough to stretch out a hand to save a drowning man, but a touch on
to the king or to any of his family was considered sacrilege. And still
mere mortals can approach the king only on their knees, and close
he must fall prostrate.
In 1932, a coup d'etat took place in Siam. Was accepted
a constitution limiting the rights of the king. He still owned
supreme legislative and judicial power, the king remained supreme
Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Siam and Supreme Patron
the dominant religion there is Buddhism. Executive power in the country
belonged to the Council of Ministers, which was appointed by the king. But Parliament could
to express no confidence in the Council of Ministers, and then the king had to appoint
new ministers.
In 1938, the dictatorship of Pibulsongram was established in the country and headed by
them groupings of officers.
In 1939, Siam was renamed Thailand. But neither the new name nor
the constitution has not been changed international position states. Economy and
Thailand's foreign policy continued to depend on British and American
imperialists.
In 1941, the Thai government entered into a military alliance with Japan, and in
Japanese troops were stationed in the country. During the war years, a wide
popular movement against the invaders. In connection with the surrender of Japan in 1945
year, her troops were expelled from Thailand. However, the country started
run by the Americans. The imperialists turned Thailand into one of their
strongholds in Asia, dragged him into the aggressive military bloc SEATO. IN
Thailand is building military bases, laying strategic roads.
In the 2nd World War, Thailand participated on the side of Japan. From 1947 (from
intermittently) in Thailand, in fact, the regime of military dictatorship. In 1991
The 17th (after 1932) military coup took place in Thailand. In accordance with
adopted in 1991, the interim constitution transferred the highest power in the country
the National Council for the Maintenance of Public Order, to which
entrusted with the functions of monitoring the actions of the transitional parliament and
transitional government.
2.3 Relations between Russia and Thailand.
Russia played an important role in maintaining the independence of Thailand,
diplomatic relations with which were established in 1896. However
good relations between Russia and Siam, more precisely, between the two monarchs
started a few years before. In 1883, Tsarevich Nikolai, the future
Russian Emperor Nicholas II, made a great journey around the world.
After visiting Japan and India, he reached Thailand, where he was met with
royal honors by King Rama V. The monarchs liked each other very much
friend and quickly became friends. The Thais themselves interpret this friendship as a rapprochement
East and West. In 1886, Rama V, accompanied by Prince Vajiravuta, inflicted
return visit to Petersburg. And ten years later his second and beloved son
Chakrabonks, who previously studied for several years in England and lived with a family
middle-class, accompanied the Siamese ambassador to Russia. In Petersburg he
was placed in the Winter Palace, in apartments for royalty, and this
very different from what he had in England. Immediately after his arrival
was introduced to Nicholas II and soon entered the page corps, which
graduated in 1902. The prince quickly mastered the Russian language, imbued with Russian
culture, was very fond of watching ballet, especially Matilda Kshesinskaya, and
even he himself performed in some performances, sometimes dressing in women's
clothes. In 1905 he met Ekaterina Desnitskaya, the daughter of a judge from
Ukrainian city of Lutsk, and they secretly got married. When they found out in Bangkok
about marriage, the prince was deprived of the right to the throne. In 1907 they had a son -
Prince Chuva, who was taken away from his parents and raised in a royal
family. In the 1920s, palace intrigues led to a divorce. Catherine went to
Shanghai, where she lived for the rest of her life. Prince Chuva lived a quiet life under
yard and died in the 60s.
Diplomatic relations between the USSR and Thailand were established in
1941, although they have actually been supported since 1947.
3. Nature.
3.1 Relief.
More than 1/2 of the territory of Thailand is occupied by low-lying plains; almost all
the rest are medium-altitude mountains. Western and northern fringes of Thailand
represent folded-blocky mountains and hilly ridges composed of granites,
limestone, crystalline and shale. The main ranges - Kun-
the peak of Thailand - Mount Inthanon (2595 m).
The northeastern part of Thailand - the vast Korat plateau, about
150 m, composed of horizontally occurring layers of red sandstones.
Mountains stretch along the border of Thailand and Kampuchea in the southeast
Kravan and Dangrek.
Between the region of mountains in the west and north and the Korat plateau in the east
the Menam lowland is located. The southern (narrowed) part of Thailand is occupied
mostly low-lying plains, over which rise small
massifs and mountain ranges up to 1786 m high.
The shores are mostly low-lying, swampy in places. A lot of
natural harbors; stretches along the west coast and the Malay Peninsula
chain of islands and rocks.
The length of the land borders is 5100 km, the coastline is 2750 km. Area 514
3.2 Climate.
The climate of Thailand is subequatorial, monsoonal. Summer Southwest
monsoon lasts from late April to mid-November, winter north-
eastern - from late November to February. The average annual temperature in
flat and foothill areas 22-29°C (the warmest month is May), in the mountains
in the north in winter it drops to 10-15°C. Average monthly temperatures in
low areas from +22° in the north to +28° in the south.
In the larger, wider part of Thailand, there are 3 seasons: warm dry (winter),
hot dry (between winter and summer monsoons) and hot humid (summer).
There are 2 seasons in the south of the country: hot less humid (winter) and hot more
wet (summer). Precipitation falls over 1000 mm on the Menam lowland,
less than 900 mm on the Korat plateau, in mountainous areas up to 3000 mm (more in some places) in
year. The duration of the rainy season is from 6 to 8 months.
3.3 Inland waters.
The river network of Thailand is dense. Rivers are characterized by drastic changes
water content throughout the year and high floods during the monsoon rainy season. Almost
all rivers begin in the mountains of the northern regions and flow into the Gulf of Thailand.
Of particular importance in the life of the country is the Menam Chao Phraya River, the longest and
rich river in Thailand. Its length is 1200 km (navigable for 400
km from the mouth). Together with its tributaries, it irrigates those areas where
rice is grown. Through countless channels - klongs - water is diverted from
rivers to rice fields. From May to October, during the rainy season, the whole lowland,
along which the Menam Chao Phraya flows, is flooded with water.
Other rivers: along eastern and partly northeastern border
Thailand flows the Mekong River. The right tributary is also important.
Mekong River - Mun. Along the western border (partly) is the Salween River.
The lakes are insignificant; the largest is Kam (in the Mekong River system).
In the life of a Thai, water determines a lot: the harvest depends on it; By
canals and rivers bring crops to the city for sale; on narrow long
boats - sampangah - communication between villages is maintained,
located on the banks of rivers and canals. Many villages are built on stilts
above the water. Many peasants live in large boats covered with mats,
especially during prolonged floods. After all, the river is far from always
protector and provider. In the flood it becomes cruel and merciless,
like the evil dragon of folk tales. There are many fish in the rivers and canals, and almost all
the peasants are engaged in fishing.
In the northern, wide part of Thailand, reds are the most common.
soils of tall savannahs, brown-red soils of tropical dry
deciduous forests and mountain-forest red earth; in river valleys - alluvial
and meadow. In the southern part of Thailand (including the area adjacent to the northern
coast of the Gulf of Thailand) - lateritic podzolized soils.
3.5 Vegetation.
Thailand is located in the tropical rainforest zone. About 65% of it
the area is occupied by the jungle. Thailand's vegetation is dominated by
deciduous tropical (monsoon) forests in which teak and
mahogany, sal, bamboo and others. In the most humid areas, mainly
way in the mountains, on the elevated outskirts of the Korat plateau, on the isthmus of Kra and on
In the north-east of the coastal part, moist evergreen forests grow.
The main species of these forests are dipterocarpations, hopeis, ficuses, pandanuses and
various palm trees. In the coastal strip in the south, a mangrove forest is developed.
vegetation. Savannas and thickets are widespread on the Korat plateau.
thorny trees and shrubs. On dry (leeward) mountain slopes, in the zone
700-1700 m grow pine-oak forests, in the upper zone of the mountains - evergreen
shrubs.
Many valuable tree species grow in the jungle. Inhabitants of forest areas
various resins, balms, gums, varnishes are obtained from these trees. Fruit
some forest plants (mangosteen, durian, banana) are edible. big
palm trees are of economic importance - coconut and sago. On the slopes of the mountains
A teak tree grows in the northern region. Its height reaches 40 m, and
trunk diameter - 2 m. Teak wood is extremely durable, it is an excellent
material for the construction of ships and port facilities.
6. Animal world.
Almost all of Thailand belongs to the Indo-Malayan zoogeographical
areas. A wide variety of animals live in forests and bamboo thickets.
animals: rhinos, elephants, tapirs, tigers, leopards, wild cats, squirrels.
Especially a lot of monkeys there. There are not only macaques, but also
anthropoid - gibbons. The savannas are inhabited by antelopes, deer, feral
buffaloes and wild bulls - gaur and banteng. All over the country, in the forests and in the fields,
a lot of snakes, among them there are many poisonous ones, for example, "colored ribbons" and huge
king cobras.
Diverse birds: pheasants, peacocks, parrots, hornbill, herons,
Siamese red-throated crane. In the rivers - crocodiles; various types of fish
(mainly cyprinids).
Tame elephants are used in logging. They carry logs
to the river and sort out the jams formed during the rafting of the timber. Elephants work
only a few hours, the rest of the time they graze and rest in the jungle. IN
Thailand has also preserved wild elephants.
4. Population.
4.1 General characteristics.
Thailand is a multinational country with over 30
nationalities and tribes, mainly ethnic groups of Tai: Khon Tai
(13.5 million), Lao (4.5 million), Shans (up to 55 thousand) and others. They speak the language
Thai, but English is also widely spoken, and is concentrated mainly
way in the central, northeastern and northern regions. Besides,
live Chinese (about 3 million, mostly in cities), Malays (over 600
thousand) - in the south, Khmers (350 thousand) - in the southeast. There are few Europeans (up to
The average density is over 55 people per 1 km2, and in the areas of the lower
currents of the Menam, central and some southern provinces (30% of the territory
Thailand) is concentrated over 50% of the population (150-200 people per 1 km2).
Rural population -, about 80%. Cities with population over
100 thousand people - Bangkok, Thonburi.
Over 85% of the economically active population is employed in agriculture and forestry
economy. The number of workers in industry, including handicraft, exceeds
400 thousand. About 40% of the population is illiterate.
Contrasts between modern Bangkok and the rest of the rural province
- as, however, within the same city between residents of its different
quarters - reflect the social tension that exists within the country.
Crime - often as a result of poverty - in Bangkok and other
regional centers is higher than the national average.
4.2 Holidays and celebrations:
Gregorian calendar.
Maha Pucha - the Buddhist holiday of "all saints" (in memory of 1250
disciples gathered to listen to the Buddha's sermon), which is celebrated
in numerous churches with a procession with lamps (full moon day in
February). All shops of the institution are closed for three days.
with flowers, incense and pious gifts, a rite of remembrance is performed
ancestors of the reigning king. The only day of the year when the doors open
royal pantheon in the Grand Palace.
New Year, water holiday. Buddha statues, relatives and friends, just
random passers-by are poured with water (sometimes from a special vat or from
hose) as a sign of universal reconciliation and for protection from evil influences. Near
temples, according to the rite of koprasai, small chedis are built from sand.
plowing ceremony on Sanam Luang in honor of the First Furrow Festival.
On the full moon of May there is a great religious holiday - Visakha
Pucha. On this day, all temples celebrate a triple holiday: the birth of Buddha,
his enlightenment and immersion in nirvana.
The July full moon is celebrated - Asalaha Pucha (holiday in memory of
Buddha's first sermon by five disciples).
Varsa - Buddhist fast - begins in July - August Skao Parns
(the beginning of a three-month retreat of monks in monasteries for a period
rainy season) and ends after three months with the celebration of Ork
considered the most beautiful in the history of Thailand, her birthday is very
beautiful holiday all over the country.
his monument in front of the parliament building.
Ton Kathin, when solemn processions are arranged and gifts are given
monks, completes the period of fasting in October-November.
In November, on the night of the full moon, it is not the state, but very
colorful holiday Loy Krathong: candles, aromatic smoking sticks and
other gifts are placed in paper boats, often in the shape of a lotus, and let them go
holiday, like the queen's birthday.
If public holidays fall on a day off, then
the next day is also considered a non-working day.
4.3 Traditions.
In Thailand, any head is considered sacred, supreme in direct and
in a figurative sense, regardless of whether it is worthy or not, it fulfills its
purpose. According to Thai belief, a spirit guarding life sits in the head.
person. Therefore, touch someone else's head and even gently ruffle
hair means nothing, nothing to offend a person. Can't push
someone's foot - the lower, and therefore despicable part of the body.
For Thais, a good tone is a restrained tone. No familiar
a resident of Thailand feeling embarrassed. If you are unhappy with something,
restrain emotions and calmly find out everything. Don't speak loud - you just don't
will hear! The Thai language is like soft singing or, more precisely, like birdsong.
Try Twitter with them - see what you will have
fantastic success with partners and service personnel.
Thais have a highly developed self-esteem, which
manifests itself both in appearance and in behavior (this is very noticeable in the sphere of
service where most Thais work). They are helpful, but this
helpfulness never comes to self-abasement. Whatever you give them -
matryoshka or samovar - be sure, sooner or later it will appear on
local market. And not at all for the sake of business, but out of habit.
The Thais are quite stern about shoes: they are supposed to be removed before
the entrance not only to the temple, but also to a private dwelling. If you are invited to visit
and delicately say “you can keep your shoes on”, leave your shoes anyway
Sitting cross-legged (as we do in Central Asia or in India) somewhere
in the village - according to Thai traditions, it is absolutely unthinkable even for a man: this
will be taken as an insult to others.
Everyone in Thailand smiles. The restrained style adopted in behavior is completely
does not contradict the spirit of cheerfulness.
In all other respects, Thais are quite tolerant of strangers.
flawed people, at least very tactful. They are very hospitable
welcome foreigners, especially since tourism brings the country a considerable
4. Religion.
Thailand is the land of Buddha, and Buddhism is the state religion here. 95
percent of the population profess its southern version, the remaining 5% consist of
Muslims, Christians and followers of Confucius. Visual evidence
Thai love for the Buddha - an infinite number of temples built even in
almost uninhabited corners of the country, as well as a huge number of his images and
a whole army of monks. All Thai Buddhists are male from the age of 20
serve at least once in their lives "spiritual duty", becoming monks on
period from two weeks to three months. The hardships of asceticism are more than compensated
especially honorary status of monks. Monks are forbidden to practice
productive labor, so they actually live dependent on others
citizens. According to the philosophy of Buddhism, anyone who gives to a monk is
a good deed counts in future life So both the giver and the receiver
as a result quits and are happy with each other.
Thais respect the spirits very much, they are afraid to anger them and how they can,
ask them for mercy. In front of houses, in hotel gardens, and even in front of
institutions, they set up a “house of the spirit”: this is how they lure this spirit
protect the territory, and so that the watchman does not sleep and is kind, they bring him food and
drink, flowers and incense sticks.
Like true Buddhists, Thais also respect elders, teachers and privacy.
own. And (full moon day in February) of the king and queen are celebrated
like national holidays. Court etiquette suggests that the monarch
cannot be touched, that is, it cannot be physically touched.
4.5 Bangkok - "CITY OF ANGELS".
The capital of Thailand wakes up early. Shops, shops, cafes open.
An endless stream of cars and motorcycles fills the streets. through the noise
cars, offering their passengers to get acquainted with breaking news. IN
during this time, cars move very slowly, and during peak hours on the main
traffic jams often occur on city highways.
This is how you will see Bangkok for the first time. The city will surprise you with an unusual combination
Eastern exoticism and Western modernism. Unlike other cities
East Bangkok can not boast of ancient history. He exists only
from the 16th century, and in 1782 the founder of the current royal Chakri dynasty
King Rama I moved his residence to Bangkok from ancient Ayutthaya,
destroyed in 1767 by Burmese troops. Near the Thai capital
several titles. Official - Bangkok, which means "city of
wild plum.
This was once the name of a small fishing village on the banks of the Chao River.
Praia, on the site of which the city was founded. Another name was given in
during the solemn ceremony of declaring Bangkok the capital of the state.
Probably no city has such a magnificent and long name.
peace - City of the gods, great city, residence of the emerald Buddha,
An impregnable fortress, the Great Capital of the World, gifted with nine
jewels and replete with huge royal palaces, which
resemble heavenly dwellings and from which the personification of God rules, the city,
given by the god Indra and built by Visanukam. But many Bangkoks
They call their city simply Krung Tep - "city of angels".
Bangkok is amazingly beautiful. Buildings located in Sanam Square
Luang: National Theatre, State Museum, Thammasat University,
majestic Buddhist temples built in the traditional Thai style.
Silom Street - "Wall Street" of Bangkok; there are many modern buildings from
glass and concrete, where there are representative offices of commercial and industrial
firms, banks, insurance companies, jewelry and antique shops. On
the largest avenue in Bangkok - Sukumvit, which is considered the center
foreign tourism, there are cafes sparkling with neon lights,
hotels, restaurants and nightclubs. Restless Chinatown, Chinese
part of Bangkok, with many shops and workshops, with a noisy and colorful
Sampeng shopping area.
There are many restaurants in Bangkok, which represent almost the entire
planet cuisine. Speaking of restaurants of national Thai cuisine, it is necessary
say that they are usually located in buildings built in
traditional thai style. They do not have offices and visitors are
in one large hall with a stage. There are no chairs either. The tables are in
large niches in the floor and visitors sit on the sides of these niches. On the stage
an orchestra is located, to the accompaniment of which dressed in national costumes
girls perform folk dances. Sometimes on the stage to the music are played
theatrical performances of ancient Thai epics.
Classical cultural events - theatrical performances,
performances by symphony orchestras are quite rare in Bangkok.
There are no officially operating casinos. The best evening entertainment in
the capital are countless places of entertainment: restaurants with bright
performance in the national style, jazz - and piano bars, very popular
karaoke, excellent discos, nightclubs and variety shows. Resorts
entertainment is in no way inferior to the capital.
You can devote the evening to sports spectacles, since they are such in Bangkok
as exotic as, for example, cuisine.
Once upon a time in Bangkok there were many channels, in Thai klong. That's why
the city was called the Venice of the East. In connection with the reconstruction of the city, many of
they fell asleep, and the rest, unlike the Venetian ones, are by no means tuned
in a romantic way. The miserable shacks of the urban poor huddle up to them, on the water
different-sized boats, the rotten sides of which are patched with scraps
gland. There are many floating cafes, eateries,
hardware and grocery stores. "Water taxis" are rapidly sweeping by.
Long motor boats ride tourists along the waterways of Bangkok.
The architecture of the Thai capital is diverse and cosmopolitan. City
built up with the help of foreign firms, and each contributes to the guise of
Bangkok has something of its own, depriving it of specific features, according to which "the city
angels" can be distinguished from other cities in the world. Here, on a small piece
Asian land, East and West converged and this manifested itself in the external appearance
a city that successfully combined eastern exoticism with western modernism.
There are about four hundred Buddhist temples in Bangkok. In the rays of the tropical
the sun elegantly sparkles on them gilding and the colored tiles of their steppes glisten,
at the slightest breath of a breeze, hundreds of bells, reinforced
along the edges of curved roofs. Temple Bencham-obopit ("Marble Temple") - sample
national architecture. It is built of white marble, the roof on it
patterned red tiles. At the entrance are huge stone statues,
depicting fairy guardians. Crowned by Bencham-obopite, like many others
Buddhist temples, a symbolic image of a snake, sacred in Thailand
animal.
Bangkok is an international city. In its noisy bazaars one can hear
Chinese dialect - the Chinese bring poultry here from their farms,
pork and vegetables. Bearded Indian merchants sit among silks and brocades.
The city has many European shops.
In the morning, on the streets of the capital and other cities, the first to appear are
shaved heads in bright orange robes. They have wallets in their hands.
bowls. It was the Buddhist monks who began to collect alms. As usual, each
a Thai, at least a few months in his life, must spend in
monastery, and every Buddhist is obliged to help the monks "four
necessities": food, shelter, clothing and medicinal raw materials. Monk not
has the right to think about material goods, touch money and
woman, sleep on a soft bed, wear jewelry and eat in the afternoon.
for alms, which they themselves collect in special pots and knapsacks -
there are no kitchens at the monasteries. Collecting alms seems to be easy, but it happens
monks wander somewhere far from the temple or they are invited to a distant
area. So the monks walk all over Bangkok, flashing their orange
Rickshaws are ringing: they carry riders on scooters. Right on
braziers are on the street. Spicy meat boils on hot charcoal
curry sauce, they are poured over boiled rice.
The outskirts of Bangkok are no different from the village. Here the inhabitants sow rice
and catch fish. And in the city center, luxurious mansions of the Thai aristocracy
and buildings of branches of American, British and French firms and banks.
5. Household.
5.1 Features of the formation of the economy.
The first Tai tribes appeared in the basin of the Menam River even before the start of our
era, however, the process of formation of the Thai people began mainly in 13-14
centuries During this period, the Thai state was also formed, which reached the greatest
heyday in the 14-18 centuries, but then due to feudal civil strife and wars with
neighboring countries fell into disrepair.
In the 19th century the penetration of colonial powers into Thailand (England,
USA, France), and later other capitalist states imposed
country capitulation regime. Located at the junction of colonial possessions
England and France in Southeast Asia, Thailand was able to
a number of features were identified. Compared to other countries in the region,
fell into colonial dependence, Thailand for a long time was in
to a lesser degree an object of imperialist exploitation, which left
opportunities for economic development of the country. However, by the end of the 19th century.
in the hands of foreign, mainly British, monopolies were
key industries, including tin and tungsten mining, teak harvesting
wood, banking. On the eve of World War II, England controlled
up to 70% of foreign investment and the same share of Thailand's foreign trade.
In fact, Thailand was turned into a semi-colony. foreign capital did
stake on securing feudal-landowner ownership of land and
the system of enslaving exploitation of the peasantry based on it. During
between the world warriors in the Thai village deepened the process
dispossession of the peasantry. Positions other than landlords, especially after
the apex revolution of 1932, pressed the national bourgeoisie, which
mainly belonged to small enterprises of rice cleaning, food processing,
sawmill and textile industries. These years are marked by performances
the Thai proletariat, the growing struggle of the peasants for the land. On the eve of the 2nd
world war among the ruling circles of Thailand strengthened the position of supporters
pro-Japanese orientation; Thailand took part in the war on the side of Japan.
Taking advantage of this, after the end of the war, England tried to achieve
monopoly rights in this country. However, England failed to fulfill its
plans due to the expansion of the United States, which in 1950 were imposed on Thailand
unequal agreements on military assistance and economic
"cooperation". And in 1954 they dragged the country into the aggressive SEATO bloc,
cooperation in which Thailand required huge military spending
(about 60% of the budget). This placed Thailand in a strong economic and
political dependence on the United States.
The public debt of Thailand in 1962 reached 12 billion baht. Totally agree
1962 the cost of living of the population increased by 6%.
5.2 Economy of Thailand.
Thailand is a developing agro-industrial country, economy
which is heavily dependent on foreign capital. The basis
economy - agriculture (provides about 60% of the gross national
product) and a relatively developed mining industry.
Most of the land is owned by feudal lords.
The main industry is agriculture.
Machine-building, chemical, cement,
oil refining industry. Crafts (production of items
household items, art products). Foreign tourism.
Collection and production (million tons): paddy rice - 13.7; rubber - 0.42;
corn - 1.6; sugar cane - 23.0. They also cultivate cotton, jute,
kenaf, cassava, tobacco, tapioca and other crops. Animal husbandry is developed
fishing, production of valuable species of wood. Share of industry in
national income is 26-27%. The most developed mining,
woodworking and textile industries.
Production and extraction of industrial products (thousand tons): tin - 30,
fluorspar - 300, lead ore - 1.6, iron ore - 40,
manganese ore - 50.3, lignite - 680.3, cement - 5000, electricity
About 20 billion kWh. In recent years, based on the processing of imported
raw materials and materials built petrochemical, metalworking,
engineering companies. Developed to a limited extent
colored and ferrous metallurgy. Thailand is a world exporter of tin and nature,
Forestry is an important branch of the Thai economy.
The length of roads (thousand km.): Automobile - 43.9, of which about 19 with
hard coating; railways - 3.8. National trade tonnage
fleet 195 thousand reg. t. Seaports - Bangkok (main), Phuket, Sattahip,
Songkhla, Kantang. Airports of international importance: Dongmuang (near
Bangkok) and Hat Yai (in the South of the country). Thailand is a member of Plan
Colombo".
Monetary unit - baht = 100 santangam. At the official exchange rate 1962
1 baht = 0.05 US dollar.
Thailand is a constitutional monarchy. According to the interim constitution
the legislative body is the bicameral National Assembly
(Parliament), consisting of a Senate (268 people), appointed by the king, and
House of Representatives (357 people), directly elected by the population of the country
headed by the Prime Minister. Political body of the ruling military group
The National Political Council (NPC), endowed with broad powers.
All political parties dissolved after the 1976 coup d'état.
Prior to this, more than 50 parties were active, including the Democratic Party,
Thai National Party, Social Justice Party,
Socialist Party of Thailand, United Socialist Front,
New Force Party, etc. The Communist Party of Thailand (founded in
1942) is illegal.
Gross national product per capita (data on
September 1997) - $ 3,022, although in 1995 GNP per capita
population was $ 1,750 per year, which indicates the rise of the economy
countries (in addition, when comparing indicators for mining,
agricultural production, electricity production, etc.,
we come to the same conclusion).
5.3 Foreign trade.
Foreign trade is of great importance for the Thai economy.
The main export items are rice (over 50% of the value, 2nd place in the world in terms of
export), rubber, tin ore, timber (mainly teak).
Imports: cotton fabrics, oil products, food and
industrial consumer goods.
The main role in foreign trade is played by the countries of the sterling zone, and
also Japan and the USA (respectively 35-40%, 20-25% and 10-15%).
5.4 General characteristics of the economy and foreign capital in the economy.
Thailand is a country whose main culture has historically developed and
today - Fig. The vast majority of cultivated land is owned by members
royal family, courtiers, landowners. Their land is rented by usurers
and wealthy peasants, who in turn rent it out in small plots
landless peasants for half the harvest.
Foreign capital dominates in the most important branches. In 1960 straight
foreign investment was estimated at 1.4 billion baht. Over 1/3
investment belongs to English capital (tin mining,
logging, banking and insurance). However, the United States, using
privileges received under agreements with Thailand, almost equalized
their positions with the positions of England, and in terms of growth of direct investment
(mainly in trade and transport) is leading the way.
It was not until 1959-61 that the Thai authorities granted American companies
permission to build a number of enterprises for a total amount
capital investment of 210.4 million baht, and for English companies - only 11 million.
baht. The USA is far ahead of England and other capitalist countries in
export of state capital: it accounts for about 80%
foreign loans received by Thailand. Dominance of foreign monopolies
fetters the development of national private and state capital.
The measures taken by the Thai government in 1955-57, in particular
construction of state cement and pulp and paper plants,
textile and tobacco factories, caused a rebuff from foreign companies. IN
adopted in 1961, the six-year program for the development of Thailand (1961-1966) made
emphasis on receiving foreign, mainly American, "aid",
designed to a large extent to cover the huge military
costs associated with participation in SEATO.
5.5 Internal differences.
Central Thailand (about 35% of the territory) - a vast low-lying valley
the Menam Chao Phraya River with abundant rainfall and fertile
alluvial soils. Here is the main center of production and export
rice - "rice bowl" of Thailand. Maize, fruit and
vegetables. The most important industries are: rice cleaning, sawmilling,
textile, cement, paper, pottery. Cities: Bangkok (capital),
Thonburi, Ayutthaya.
Northeast (32% of the territory) covers mainly plateau
Korat is an arid region with little and uneven rainfall. Main
occupation of the population - agriculture, mainly on fertile soils
flat areas (rainfed rig, corn, jute, cotton, castor
seed), as well as animal husbandry (buffaloes and other cattle - 53%
livestock of the country, pig breeding). Developed handicraft production of yarn,
lacquered and carved wood products. Main cities: Nakhon Rachashima
(Korat), Ubon, Udon-Thani, Konken.
North (19% of the territory) - a mountainous area covered with forest, with
rainfall up to 2000 mm. Slash-and-shift farming system
(rice, legumes, corn, opium poppy), the basis of teak development. Available
oil, oil shale, lignite deposits. Developed handicraft,
textile production (silk and cotton fabric), carving
silver. Main cities: Chieng Mai, Chieng Rai, Lampang.
The south (14% of the territory) produces almost all the products of tin, tungsten,
lead in Thailand. Agriculture is dominated by rubber production
(90% of the total collection of Thailand). plays an important role in the coastal area
fishing, including sea fishing. Main cities: Nakon-
Sritamarat, Sonkla.
5.6 Agriculture.
Agriculture provides about 70% of the national income. dominates
feudal landlord property. To the landowners and the kulak elite
owns over 60% of cultivated land. About 80% of peasants rent
land mainly on extortionate terms of sharecropping, paying 50-75%
harvest. The cultivated area is 15% of the territory of Thailand.
Less than 1/5 of cultivated land is artificially irrigated. Only 3% of farms
use agricultural implements. For the most important
agricultural crops are characterized by low yields (rice - 1.3 t with
ha). The main branch of agriculture is agriculture. In 1991
6.4 million hectares were cultivated, of which up to 90% was occupied by rice (collection
7.8 million tons). The main rice-producing and rice-exporting region - the center
Thailand (55% of the gross harvest). In the drier regions of the north and north
east of Thailand, corn, legumes, peanuts,
The upland rice culture is also widespread. In the south and southeast
concentrated rubber production.
Animal husbandry is subordinate. Highest value It has
raising buffalo, the main tax in agriculture (6.8 million tons)
heads). Pigs and poultry are bred everywhere. Under the forest occupied 3/5
territories; teak blanks (105 thousand m3), other
wood (1176 thousand m 3). The population of coastal and river regions is engaged in
fishing. The total fish catch is 295 thousand tons, of which 70% is due to
sea industry.
Rice cultivation is labor intensive and agricultural machinery
retarded here. They plow on buffaloes on swampy land. Harvest is harvested from
boats with sickles, with a lot of grain wasted. They thresh rice, chasing buffaloes
by sheaves. During the ripening period of rice, rodents, crayfish,
insects, birds. Fighting them is not easy.
No less hard work on rubber plantations and logging.
stomach diseases and malaria are common. Often people get sick and
sometimes they die from the bites of poisonous snakes.
6. Industry.
Thailand's industry is underdeveloped. For the industry
accounts for 10-12% (without handicraft production - 6 - 8%) of national
income; it employs 8% of the active population. The most developed prey
minerals and primary processing of agricultural products. Out of 15,960
enterprises (1958) more than 60% are rice cleaning, sawmills,
textile and food. They employ 72% of industrial workers. big
important is the extraction of tungsten ores (one of the leading places in the world). And
development of tin deposits (14 thousand tons of tin smelted in 1962, 5th
place in the capitalist world) and to a lesser extent tungsten and lead,
fluorite, antimony, precious stones. Industry is concentrated in
cities of Chiengmai, Korat, Nakhon Sritamarat and in the capital - Bangkok.
The main centers of tin mining are Phuket, Yala, Patani, Krabi. Near
Iron ore is mined in Kanchanaburi, gold and gems are mined in the Chanthaburi region
(sapphires, rubies). The manufacturing industry is dominated by small
enterprises. Rice refineries are concentrated in Bangkok and Thonburi.
There are also cement (Bangkok), sugar (Chonburi, Supanburi,
Uttaradit), sawmills [Bangkok, Thonburi, Nakhon Sawan, Nakhon
Rachasima (Korat)], pulp and paper (Kanchanaburi) factories. Artisanal
production of silk and cotton fabrics (Chiengmai, Chiengrai,
Nakhon-Ra-chadima), pottery (Bangkok, Ayutthaya), silver carving,
tree (Bangkok, Chieng Mai, Chieng Rai). Energy resources are poorly explored. IN
northern regions there are deposits of oil and brown coal (reserves, according to estimates,
St. 150 million tons). The reserves of "white coal" are estimated at 3 billion kWh,
Electricity generation is carried out at thermal power plants (in Bangkok - 75 thousand kWh).
kW). In 1964, the construction of a hydroelectric power station in Yanghi was completed (initial capacity
150 thousand kets). In the northern and southern regions (Krabi), brown
The Thai government is taking steps to develop the industry
with the participation of foreign capital. In the city of Surat Thani under construction
oil refinery with a capacity of 1.5 million tons per year, which will operate
exclusively on imported raw materials. In Bangkok and its suburbs - 3
car assembly companies. However, foreign investment is directed
mainly in the production of textiles, paper, foodstuffs, which
puts local companies in a difficult position. In 1962 as a result
competition of foreign goods, a number of large enterprises were closed, including
including a textile factory in Thonburi.
7. Armed forces.
The armed forces consist of the ground forces, the air force and the navy. General
number of 211 thousand people. The supreme commander is the king,
the direct command of the armed forces is carried out by the national
political council and general staff.
The ground forces (141 thousand people) consist of 1 armored
divisions, 6 infantry divisions, including 4 tank battalions. In addition: 3
regimental combat teams, 4 airborne battalions, 1 missile battalion
("Hawk"), 5 companies of army aviation and several separate special units and
divisions.
In service: over 150 light tanks, over 300 armored personnel carriers, about 400
artillery and anti-aircraft guns, 40 missiles, about 90 light
aircraft, over 170 helicopters and other military equipment. Air Force (43 thousand people)
people) have about 150 combat aircraft, over 100 helicopters. include
squadrons: 1 - fighter-bombers, 7 - to combat
rebels, 1 - reconnaissance, 3 transport, 2 helicopter, 1 -
auxiliary aviation. There are 4 airfield security battalions.
The Navy (28 thousand people, including 8 thousand marines) have 3
frigate, 26 patrol ships, 3 missile and 20 patrol boats, 30
coast guard boats, over 40 landing craft, 1 patrol
base aviation squadron, 1 marine brigade (3 infantry battalions,
1 artillery battalion). The main naval bases are Bangkok and Sat Tahip.
All military equipment and weapons are foreign (mainly
American) production. The armed forces are recruited on the basis of
law on universal military service. Active military service 2
of the year. In addition to the armed forces in Thailand, there are: volunteer corps
defense (52 thousand people) and border police (14 thousand people, 54
helicopter).
8. Transport.
Railways and highways were built in Thailand for the purpose of exporting
mining products and rice to foreign markets.
The length of railways is 3517 km, highways - up to 10000 km. By 6 year old
The program reconstructs highways linking all major
cities. Railways link Thailand with Myanmar, Vietnam, Malaya,
Singapore, Cambodia.
Maritime transportation, as well as international air traffic, are carried out in
mostly by foreign companies. An important role in the domestic cargo turnover
plays river transport. Length of shipping lanes, including numerous
channels equals 3109 km. The leading ports of the country are Bangkok, Sonkla.
9. Sports and entertainment games.
From February to April, the most exciting "dragon competition" is held -
kites, in which the dragon - the "man" Chula must force the dragon-
"woman" pickup to land on her own field.
Takraw is a game in which the ball is deftly sent over the net into the field.
opponent, using any part of the body.
Thai boxing can be described as freestyle boxing, although in
and there are strict rules. Competitions are preceded by various
ceremonies; the fight is accompanied by music.
For "fish competitions" grow with strong fins
8 - centimeter fish and in a small aquarium set two males to each other
on a friend. For Thais who love competition and spectacle, especially for southerners,
cockfights are always welcome entertainment.
10. Attractions.
10.1 History of cultural development.
Monuments of the artistic culture of Thailand date back to the Bronze Age,
evidence of this is the ceramics from the burials, samples of which you can
see in the national museum. In the first centuries of our era on the territory of this
countries, Mon and Khmer arts developed, which served as the basis
Thai culture, which created numerous temples, massive, with jewelry
fine details of Buddha statue. National Thai art beginning
actively develop under the auspices of Buddhism from the XIII century: unique
temples (there are no such places anywhere else), in sculpture, characteristic
Thailand graphic elongated shapes. During the heyday of the Siamese state
In the XIV - XIX centuries- there were cities with a rectangular layout,
surrounded by brick walls with battlements in the form of lily leaves. Palaces and temples
richly decorated with colorful mosaics, intricate painting and carvings. Especially
there are many such temples in Bangkok. Numerous works were created
sculpture, the plastic expressiveness of which was gradually lost,
yielding to external decoration. Wall painting has been known since the 14th century -
paintings on the themes of the life of the Buddha in Ayutthaya (XIV century), scenes from “Tosachata” and
"Ramayana" in the temples of Bangkok (XVIII - XIX centuries).
Western influence began to be felt in Thailand from the end of the 19th century. But
the country has not lost its exotic Thai face. Especially this
a bizarre combination of the ancient East and the modern western metropolis
strikes in Bangkok, where the buildings of numerous banks, offices,
hotels in the spirit of modern "international" architecture.
10.2 Treasures of mankind.
The ruins of the ancient Thai capital lie on an island at the confluence of the Menam-
Chao Praya and Pasak. The city, oval in plan, was once surrounded by 12-
kilometer wall, partly preserved to this day. In the center
the islands are a historical park and the ruins of an ancient royal
palace. In the northern part stands the palace of the heir apparent, almost untouched by time.
Prince, where the museum is located today.
Ban Chiang
The oldest examples of pottery were found in the northeast
settlement of Ban Chiang on the Korat high plateau, which was inhabited already
in the 4th millennium BC. Ceramics exhibited in
National Museum of Thailand in Bangkok, belong to three periods. Most
early urns, where the ashes of the dead were kept, are decorated with a cord-like decor.
Later, their red edges became thickened, and on a white surface
engraved patterns appeared. On ceramic vessels of the last period
spiral patterns and other geometric shapes appeared.
Very interesting from the point of view of archeology Sukhothai, like others
cities nearby, surrounded by a wall and protective ditches. As is commonly believed,
royal palaces in ancient times were built of wood, and therefore they are not
no traces left. In Sukhothai, one can discern the remains of a highly developed
(and Khmer-like) systems of canals, reservoirs and ponds. City
was founded by Chinese settlers who appeared in these places in the XII century.
Tuan Gai and Huai Kha Kheng.
Both game reserves cover 320,000 hectares next to the Burmese
border. The appearance of the landscape is determined by small hills, valleys and plains,
which are constantly changing under the influence of water flows. In addition, here
many small lakes, ponds and swampy plains. In higher areas
evergreen vegetation prevails, and deciduous trees grow in the lowlands
trees and bamboo. On the territory of two reserves live different
tribes, only about 4000 people.
10.3 Tourism objects of Bangkok.
Grand Palace or Grand Royal Palace, the residence of the kings of Siam,
located in the city center on the banks of the Menam Chao Phraya. To the complex Grand
The palace includes the palaces of Chakri, Dusit, Maha Prasad and Amarinda, where
coronation of Thai kings. The famous Temple of the Emerald is also located here.
Buddha, looks like a fabulous city.
Wat Po temple - the unusual size of the figure of the Reclining Buddha (at his
transition to nirvana): 49 m in length and 12 m in height, only the feet of the Reclining
The Buddhas are 5 meters long.
The Temple of Wat Arun - the Rising Sun is located on the right bank of the Menam-
Chao Prai in the former Thonburi fortress, one of the main temples of the city.
Golden Mountain - a Buddhist temple on an artificial embankment 78 meters high
meters, where the remains of the Buddha are buried in the central pagoda.
Trimitar Monastery - with a statue of the Golden Buddha made of solid gold
5 m high and weighing 5.5 tons.
Lak Muang - a giant swing next to the Grand Palace - two huge
teak pillars with carved crossbars, installed for Brahmin rites.
floating market. Bangkok used to be called the Venice of the East: residential
quarters were located along the Menam Chao Phraya River, its tributaries and Klongs.
The number of klongs (channels) reached 170. Now there are no more than 140. All life
walked on the water. The custom has survived to this day: early in the morning on the Floating
the market is trading from boats, by the middle of the day the bazaar blurs into different
Crocodile farm - a place where an exotic show called
“Catching of crocodiles with hands”, in which people, crocodiles and snakes participate. On
a farm of more than 50 thousand crocodiles and a small zoo where you can see
tame lions, monkeys, boas, take pictures with them, ride
12. Specific features.
12.1 Nutrition.
“Sanuk” is the spirit of cheerfulness and lightness of being, which is aspired to
all Thais - prevails in their approach to food. richness and diversity
exquisite national recipes Thailand has long been one of the first
places in the world. The basis of food here is rice - plus vegetables, fruits and spices. From meat
predominantly pork and poultry. The Crown Room of Thai Cuisine -
seafood: but there are also freshwater fish dishes.
Unlike Japan and China, chopsticks are not in use here. Except
Moreover, Thai cuisine allows you to take a break from the knife, because everything is in advance
cleaned, finely chopped, ground. Thais use spoons and forks
with which food is mixed, and never offended if a foreigner does not know
these tricks. According to the rules, rice is first pricked, and then
everything else is added. Traditional lunch in national style
ends with rice cake in coconut milk and whipped cream with
fruits, and dinner - soup, after which sweets and fruits are served.
The traditional Thai dinner is a celebratory chaos of main courses,
desserts, cold and hot appetizers, fruits and soups. Start your dinner
from ice cream, even from a cup of coffee - no one will point a finger at you
will. An integral part of any meal - soups are usually eaten
in parallel with all other dishes, two or three tablespoons to refresh
tired mouth. If you want to observe in a Thai restaurant
European foundations, then order each change of dishes separately, otherwise
case, everything will be brought at the same time.
Thai cuisine may seem too spicy: it cannot be imagined
without sauces and spices. Meals should be washed down only with non-alcoholic
drinks.
12.2 Miscellaneous.
According to the Thai reckoning associated with the Buddha, 1999
is 2542.
Time differs from Moscow by 3 hours in summer and 4 hours in winter.
The contours of Thailand on a geographical map resemble the head of an elephant, whose
the trunk forms the peninsula of Malacca stretched to the south.
Number of main telephone lines per 100 inhabitants (data as of September 1997
years) - 7.86.
79,000 subscribers in Thailand as of January 1991
integrated into a single global cellular telephone system.
Bibliography:
1. Small atlas of the world 1997
2. Treasures of mankind 1997
3. Illustrated encyclopedic Dictionary 1995
4. Restaurant Vedomosti (No. 4) 1998
5. Brief geographical encyclopedia.
6. Children's encyclopedia.
7. Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
8. Encyclopedic dictionary.
9. Geographical atlas (grade 10).
10. KGB guide to the countries of the world.
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Terrain relief.
According to the features of the relief, Thailand is usually divided into five geographical regions: the Northern Highlands, the Central Plain, the Northeast Plateau, the Southeast and the peninsular South Region.
northern highlands
consists of submeridionally oriented high mountain ranges composed of limestones. Especially high and inaccessible are the ridges in the northwest, where the highest point of the country, Mount Inthanon (2600 m) is located. The Tanentaunji Ridge forms a watershed between the Chauphraya (Menam) river basin, formed as a result of the confluence of four rivers (Ping, Wang, Yom and Nan), and the Salween river basin (most of it flows through Myanmar). In the east of this region, the vast Phipannam Highlands stretch with average heights of 1100-1200 m. Towards the south, the mountains lower and give way to plains.
central plain
occupies a vast part of the country, stretching from north to south for 400 km, and from west to east for 200 km. It is composed of alluvial deposits of the rivers Chao Phraya, Makhlong, Bangpakong and others. The fertile delta of the Chao Phraya River is the rice granary of Thailand. This river is important by water and during the wet season it is navigable to the city of Nakhon Sawan. The Chao Phraya channel has been dredged to 8.5 m in the section from the mouth to Bangkok, where a seaport has been built, capable of receiving large-capacity vessels.
northeast plateau,
or the Korat Plateau, has an undulating surface with an average height of 185 m, in places it is hilly and bordered by the low mountains of Dong Phrayafai in the west, Sankamphaeng and Dangrek in the south. The plateau stretches from west to east for 400 km and is drained by the rivers of the Mun basin, the right tributary of the Mekong; The Mekong borders Thailand and Laos. During the wet season, many lands suffer from flooding, and during the dry season, from lack of moisture. Conditions for the development of agriculture are unfavorable, and this region is considered the poorest in the country. The local population has long been engaged in animal husbandry and leisure activities (seasonal migration within the Central Plain).
Southeast region
separated from the rest of the country by the Sankamphaeng Mountains in the north and the Bangpakong River in the west. It receives a lot of precipitation, and in the past dense rainforests were common.
South District
occupies the Isthmus of Kra to the border with Malaysia. The central mountain range (the Phuket Range), rubbing in the meridional direction, separates two coastal plains: narrow, discontinuous in the west and wider in the east. The local economy is based on fishing and mining.
Thailand has rich mineral resources. There are industrial deposits of tin, tungsten, manganese, antimony, iron, zinc, lead, brown coal, oil, oil shale, natural gas, precious and semi-precious stones, barite, fluorite, rock salt.
Climate
Thailand tropical. In the southern and southeastern regions of the country, seasonal fluctuations in the regime of atmospheric humidification show little. In the rest of the territory, due to the influence of monsoons, dry and wet seasons are clearly expressed.
Precipitation.
The Central Plain, the North and the Northeast receive an average of 1000–1100 mm of precipitation per year, of which more than 90% falls during the wet season lasting from May to October. In the South and Southeast, the average annual rainfall is 2300–2500 mm, and their amount does not change significantly from month to month.
The dry season is especially noticeable in the Northeast. In the fields, the dry soil turns to stone and cracks. Ponds, shallow lakes, swamps and ditches are drying up due to lower groundwater levels. Some rivers become very shallow and become unsuitable for navigation, and sometimes they lose their flow.
The monsoon rains begin in April-May, and in early June the land is so moistened that it can be cultivated and sown. In July, irrigation canals fill with water following the rivers, which overflow widely in the Central Plain. As a result, the land in the delta of the Chao Phraya river is flooded almost entirely. To protect against the water element, the local population builds houses on stilts. In recent years, due to large-scale deforestation, the adverse effect of seasonal floods and droughts has increased.
Temperatures.
Average monthly air temperatures range from 24°C in December to 30°C in April. Only in the far north of the country in winter (November-February) does the temperature drop to +16°C.
Soils.
The most fertile alluvial soils are on the floodplains of the Central Plain. Dense clay soils of the Chao Phraya River delta, which have low water permeability, retain moisture well in bunded rice fields. They are followed in terms of productivity by fine-grained sandy loamy soils developed in the northern valleys, in particular in the Chiang Mai region. Infertile soils predominate in the Northeast.
Flora and fauna.
In the past, most of the territory of Thailand was occupied by forests, and back in 1961 their share was 53% of the total area of the country, while at present it does not exceed 20%. Up to 70% of the forest stand are deciduous species. In the mountains in northern Thailand and near the border with Myanmar, moist monsoon mixed deciduous forests dominate, in which teak, planer xylia, large-fruited pterocarpus and other hardwood species grow. These forests are interspersed with thickets of bamboo. On the open slopes in northern Thailand there are oak forests, at altitudes of more than 1000 m above sea level. alternating with pine forests of Merkuza and Khazi pines. Moist evergreen broad-leaved monsoon forests are common in the Makhlong River valley in the west and in the most humid places in the southeast. Dry monsoon forests are found in the Korat Plateau, the Central Plain, and in the high mountains of western Thailand. These forests are dominated by stunted trees, bamboo and thorny shrubs. Evergreen rainforests are widespread in the south and southeast. They are dominated by dipterocarp (yang, takyan), hopei, anisoptera, sal tree, palm trees (areca, sago), bamboo, pandanus are found. Lianas are widespread. There are mangroves along the coast, but introduced tree species such as eucalyptus and acacia often crowd out indigenous communities that have been severely affected by logging. The Thai government in 1989 sharply limited the scale of logging, but nevertheless, the rate of deforestation decreased only slightly.
Hunting and loss of natural habitats have contributed to a sharp decline in the number of wild animals in Thailand. However, in some remote areas and in protected areas, elephants, tigers, leopards (including the very rare clouded leopard), white-breasted and Malay bears, gaur and banteng bulls, Asiatic buffalo, serow, and a very rare animal black-backed tapir are still found. There are numerous monkeys (white-handed gibbons, macaques, orangutans, langurs), muntjac and sambar deer, small and large deer, antelopes and other mammals. Domesticated elephants and buffaloes are widely used in agriculture. There are several dozen species of snakes in Thailand, including poisonous ones. The fauna of birds is extremely diverse: there are many waterfowl (herons, white pelicans, ducks), pheasants, wild chickens, partridges, parrots, peacocks (including green ones), birds of prey, etc. are widespread. The world of insects is diverse, including more than 600 species of butterflies .
POPULATION
Demography
According to an estimate for 2013, 67 million 497 people live in Thailand. The country's population doubled between 1960 and 1990. However, if in the 1960s the growth rate was 3% per year, then by 2013 the population growth rate was 0.52% (12.66 births and 7.47 deaths per 1000 population). About half of the total population is under the age of 30.
The average population density in the country is 129 people per 1 sq. km. km. Over 34% of the country's population lives in cities.
Ethnic composition of the population.
The share of peoples who speak Thai languages accounts for approx. 85% of the population. The main core is formed by the Thai, or Siamese (Khontai, Tai-Nen) - a people from the Thai group. National minorities include the Chinese, Lao, Khmers, Mons, Malays, and the Karen, Shan, Akha, Lisu, Hmong (Miao), and others settled mainly in the mountains. The Siamese began to migrate south, to Thailand, in the 7th century. from what is now Yunnan Province in China. They pushed back and partially assimilated the Mons, who inhabited the lands along the right bank of the Chao Phraya River, and the Khmers, who lived on its eastern bank.
The second largest ethnic group is the Chinese. Their ancestors arrived in the country in 1880–1930. Although ethnic conflicts still took place in the 1930s and 1940s, they did not acquire the character of a stable confrontation, and by now the differences between the Chinese and Siamese have largely smoothed out.
Another large ethnic community is the Malays. Religious isolation (many Malays are Muslims by religion), the territorial proximity of Malaysia and the historical disputes related to the drawing of the border between British Malaya and the then Siam, still give rise to separatist actions of the Malays living in the south, and sometimes it comes to bloody clashes.
Languages.
Linguists disagree about the origin of the Thai (Khontai, or Siamese) language. () It probably belongs to the Thai-Kadai language group, which also includes Lao and Shan languages, but some experts classify it as a Sino-Tibetan group. There are three main dialects: Central Thai, which is spoken in Bangkok, serves as the official and literary language and is studied in public schools; Thai-Yuan, common in the north of the country and locally known as Khammuang; Thai-Lao, which is used by residents of northeastern and southeastern Thailand. In Thai, the rising and falling of tone serve to distinguish meaning, and the vocabulary consists mainly of monosyllabic words, although many polysyllabic words are borrowed from other languages - Khmer, Pali and Sanskrit.
The Karens and other mountain peoples speak different dialects, classified as Tibeto-Burman and Mon-Khmer languages. The Malays use Javanese, which is closely related to Malay and has an Arabic script. The Chinese use several southern Chinese dialects, especially Teochu, as well as Mandarin.
Religion.
Buddhism of the southern Theravada school is actually the state and the most widespread religion among the Thais. Bangkok is the headquarters of the World Fellowship of Buddhists, the largest international Buddhist organization. There are two Buddhist monastic sects in Thailand - Mahanikai (the most numerous) and Thammayutnikai (more strict). As in other countries, Buddhism in Thailand has absorbed many ritual customs and rituals from other religions - animistic, Hinduism, Confucianism and Taoism. 94% of the population of Thailand are Buddhists, approx. 4% are Muslims, there are also Hindus, Christians, Sikhs, animists and atheists.
Cities.
The largest city in the country is Bangkok. Its metropolitan area includes, in addition to the capital itself, located on the eastern bank of the Chao Phraya River, the city of Thonburi on its western bank and several suburban areas. In 2009, 6902 thousand people lived here. Since the late 1980s, the city of Chonburi, the center of the iron and steel industry and the sugar industry, located on the coast of the Gulf of Thailand in relative proximity to the capital, has experienced unusually rapid growth.
Second only to Bangkok in terms of population, Chiang Mai is the political, economic and cultural center of Northern Thailand. It is the administrative center of the province of the same name and was the capital of an ancient Thai kingdom in the past.
Nakhon Ratchasima, also known as Korat, is the largest economic and administrative center in the east of the country, an important junction of railways and roads. Another successful commercial center in the east is Ubon Ratchathani.
In the south of Thailand, near the border with Malaysia, the city of Hat Yai stands out. It is located on the Bangkok-Singapore railway line and is a transshipment point for local rubber plantation products exported to Malaysia.
GOVERNMENT
Central authorities.
Kings ruled Thailand uncontrollably until 1932, when, as a result of a bloodless revolution led by officials and the military, the absolute monarchy was replaced by a constitutional monarchy. The king has retained important positions in modern public life, his person is considered sacred, personifying the force that unites society. He is the head of state and supreme commander, on the recommendation of the chairman of the National Assembly, he appoints the prime minister and approves the list of cabinet members. The monarch has the right to dissolve the House of Representatives and declare martial law in the country.
Executive power is vested in the government headed by the prime minister, who since 1992 can only be appointed from among the deputies of the National Assembly. The latter is elected for a term of four years. The government includes up to 44 ministers appointed by the prime minister. In recent years, all Thai governments have formed on a multi-party basis.
Legislative power in the country is exercised by a bicameral parliament - the National Assembly. The House of Representatives consists of 393 deputies. Candidates for elections can be representatives of parties and independents fighting for the right to get into parliament in both single-member and multi-member districts. The Chairman of the National Assembly is the Chairman of the upper house - the Senate, and the Speaker of the House of Representatives acts as his deputy. The right to vote is granted to all citizens of the country over 20 years of age with a sufficient level of literacy.
The Senate has 262 members who are appointed by the Prime Minister for a four-year term. Senators do not have to belong to political parties, most of them are army and police officials. According to the 1997 constitution, both houses of parliament are elected and include 500 deputies in the House of Representatives and 200 deputies in the Senate.
The highest court, the Supreme Court, handles particularly complex cases and hears appeals, as well as resolves disputes related to the conduct of elections. The interpretation of the provisions of the Constitution is entrusted to a special Constitutional Tribunal.
Local authorities.
The administrative system in Thailand is highly centralized. Bangkok is still responsible for the collection of all taxes and all official appointments. Each of the 72 provinces (changwats) is governed by a governor who is appointed by the minister of the interior. Officials sent by one or another ministry or central department to work outside the capital fall under the direct control of the governors. All provincial and municipal officials are on the staff of the central state apparatus.
The provinces are divided into districts, each of which is administered by a district inspector. Its tasks include the general administration and enforcement of laws, the maintenance of public order, the collection of taxes, the supervision of the activities of educational and health institutions, the control of the criminal situation and the protection of public lands.
The next administrative-territorial unit is the community (tambon), which unites a group of villages. The head of the community performs the duties of an assistant district inspector, his salary is paid by the central government.
Grassroots cells form villages, the headmen of which choose the head of the community from their midst. The headmen are listed as assistants to the district inspector, receiving remuneration for this from the state treasury.
Political parties.
Since 1932, when a revolution took place in the country, the military has been actively involved in the politics of Thailand. Since then, a military regime has been established in the country several times and the activities of all political parties have been banned (1958-1968, 1971-1974 and 1976-1979).
Almost all political parties are regional in nature and lack national support. Permission to establish any political organization is issued by the Ministry of the Interior.
In the country's parliament, elected in 1998, the leading parties are the oldest Democratic Party (Prachatipat), founded in 1946, and the New Hope Party (Wangmai), which arose in 1990. Several large parties function in the country: the National Party (Chattay), the Moral Force Party (Palangtam), Social Action Party (Kitsangkom), Thai People's Party (Prachakonthai) opposition party "For Thailand" ("Phua Thai").
Foreign policy.
Thailand is a member of the UN and is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Asia-Pacific Economic Conference. From 1946 until the mid-1970s, he was a US ally during the Cold War and received US military assistance. During the Vietnam War, American military units were stationed in Thailand.
Armed forces.
On military service every man between the ages of 21 and 30 can be called up for a period of 24 months. In 1994, 246 thousand people were in the armed forces. In irregular parts serve approx. 10 thousand people.
ECONOMY
Thailand has a well developed infrastructure. Strong economic growth is currently in to a large extent driven by industrial and agricultural exports – mainly electronics, agricultural, automotive, spare parts and processed food products. Thailand is trying to maintain growth in domestic consumption and public investment to offset weak exports in 2012.
The country's unemployment rate of less than 1% of the labor force is one of the lowest in the world. Thailand also attracts about 2.5 million migrant workers from neighboring countries. The Thai government is pursuing a program to maintain a $10 a day minimum wage and introduce new tax reforms to bring prices down.
Thai economy emerges from internal and external economic turmoil recent years. The global economic crisis has drastically reduced Thailand's exports. In 2009 the economy shrank by 2.3%. However, in 2010 Thailand's economy grew again by 7.8%, the fastest pace since 1995.
At the end of 2011, the country was rocked by massive floods in the industrial areas of the country - in Bangkok and five nearby provinces, which paralyzed the manufacturing sector, but the industry recovered already in the second quarter of 2012: GDP growth settled at 5.5% in 2012. The government approved mitigation projects floods, which were started in 2012, in the amount of 11.7 billion US dollars, and another 75 billion US dollars are planned to be invested for this purpose over the next seven years with plans from 2013.
The most developed economically is the Central region. Most industrial enterprises, banks, trading companies and transport facilities are concentrated in Bangkok and its environs. The most fertile lands of Thailand are confined to the Central Plain. Rice, sugar cane, corn, cassava are grown here.
The economic development of the Northeast is constrained by poor soils, a relatively arid climate, and a lack of financial resources. Despite the implementation government programs road construction, improvement of the water supply system and strengthening of social services, it is not possible to overcome the backwardness of the region, and it is the poorest in the country.
In Northern Thailand, only in the intermountain valleys there are conditions for agricultural production. Since ancient times, timber has been the main commodity here, but due to the spread of agriculture and excessive logging, the forested area has significantly decreased. Currently, industrial logging is prohibited on public lands.
In the South of the country there are many small fishing harbors. Foreign trade operations are conducted through the main local ports of Songkhla and Phuket. The main products of this region are rubber and tin.
Since the 1970s, the average annual growth rate of the country's economy has been approx. 7%, and in some years reached 13%. Gross national product per capita in 1997 was estimated at approx. $2,800 In 1997, the baht depreciated due to excessive government indebtedness, which led to a significant decline in production.
Human Resources
Thailand in 2011 was estimated at 39.41 million people, of which 38.2% were employed in agriculture, 13.6% in industry; in trade, services and public service- 48.2%. The main problem is the insufficiently high level of education and the lack of professionally trained personnel.
GDP by sectors of the economy in 2012 was distributed as follows: agriculture - 12.3%; industry - 43.6%; services - 44.2%.
Energy
highly dependent on oil imports. In 1982, the share of oil was 25% of the value of imports. This figure dropped to 8.8% in 1996 due to the general expansion of imports. The energy crisis associated with rising liquid fuel prices forced the Thai government to look for alternative approaches. The most significant results have come from the discovery of offshore natural gas fields and the development of hydroelectric power. In the mid-1990s, dependence on oil imports increased again.
Majority settlements in Thailand electrified (except those located in remote areas). In electricity consumption, the hegemony of the metropolitan area of Bangkok is clearly expressed. Electricity generation in 2012 amounted to 173.3 billion kWh.
Agriculture.
Since the mid-1970s, there has been a decrease in the role of agriculture, in which in 1996 only 10% of national income was created against 34% in 1973. Nevertheless, the industry satisfies domestic demand for food.
Approximately one third of the entire territory of the country is occupied by cultivated land, of which half is reserved for rice crops. Peasant farms suffer from a lack of land, but in the period after the Second World War they managed to achieve a gradual increase in grain harvests. Since the early 1980s, Thailand has become the world's largest exporter of rice, and in the late 1990s, in terms of gross rice harvest (22 million tons), it ranked 6th in the world.
Government actions aimed at diversifying the sectoral structure of agricultural production in the 1970s contributed to the growth of yields and increased sales abroad of a number of agricultural products, including cassava, sugar cane, corn and pineapples. The rise, although slow, was observed in the rubber industry. All this allowed the Thai economy to react less painfully to fluctuations in world rice prices. Cotton and jute are also grown to a significant extent.
Animal husbandry plays a subordinate role. For plowing the fields they keep buffaloes, which are gradually being replaced by relatively inexpensive small-scale mechanization. Most peasants breed pigs and chickens for meat, and commercial poultry farming grew especially rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s. In the Northeast, raising cattle for sale has long been an important source of income for local residents.
Fishing.
In the Thai diet, fish is the main source of protein. For rural residents, freshwater fish and crustaceans are especially important, which are caught and even bred in paddy paddy fields, canals and reservoirs. Since the 1960s, sea fishing has become one of the leading sectors of the national economy. Since the late 1980s, shrimp farming has become very important. In the late 1990s, Thailand ranked 9th in the world in terms of seafood catch (approx. 2.9 million tons).
Forestry.
The forests of Thailand feature many valuable hardwood tree species, including teak. The export of teak was banned in 1978, at which time the contribution of the newly important industry to the national income was reduced to 1.6%. However, the volume of logging did not decrease much, which forced in 1989 to take urgent legislative measures to almost completely limit them. Nevertheless, illegal logging continues, including for the purpose of expanding the areas of agricultural land and settlements. Back in the late 1980s, approx. 5 million people.
Mining industry.
Its share in GDP is only approx. 1.6%, but this industry remains a significant source of export foreign exchange earnings. Thailand is one of the leading suppliers of tin and tungsten to the world market. Some other minerals are also mined on a small scale, among them gems such as rubies and sapphires. In the 1980s, the development of natural gas fields began in coastal waters.
Manufacturing industry
developed rapidly in the 1990s and became the most important sector of the economy, in which in 1996 almost 30% of GDP was created. Such branches of industry as electronic, petrochemical, car assembly, jewelry are developed.
In the 1960s and 1970s, enterprises of the textile and food industries emerged (including the production of soft drinks, freezing shrimp and canned seafood). The output of tobacco products, plastics, cement, plywood, car tires continues to grow. The population of Thailand is engaged in traditional handicrafts - woodcarving, the production of silk fabrics and lacquer products.
International trade.
Between 1952 and 1997, Thailand experienced a constant trade deficit, which had to be covered by income from foreign tourism and foreign loans. After the end of the Cold War, loans began to come mainly from foreign private banks and investors. Until 1997, Thailand was considered a reliable and attractive country for investment, but then this reputation was undermined as a result of a crisis caused by accumulated debt obligations, as well as a decline in exports.
Thanks to the development of export industries in the 1990s, Thailand is now less dependent on the supply of its agricultural products to the world market, which generates approx. 25%. The main export items are computers and components, integrated circuits, electrical transformers, jewelry, ready-made clothing, fabrics, various plastic products, tin, fluorspar, zinc ore, agricultural products (rice, rubber, tapioca, sorghum, kenaf, jute) , seafood. Imports consist mainly of machinery and equipment, consumer goods, oil and oil products.
Exports go primarily to the United States, followed by Japan. The latter is the main supplier of goods for the domestic market of Thailand. The bulk of investment comes from the US and Japan.
Transport. Thailand's railways have a length of over 4 thousand km and connect Bangkok with the main cities in the north and northeast of the country, as well as with Malaysia and Singapore. A developed system of roads (over 70 thousand km long) allows you to get to any corner of Thailand. Of great importance for internal communication is water river transport, which provides approx. 60% of traffic. Through the international airport in Bangkok, Thailand is connected to many countries in Europe, Asia, America and Australia with daily scheduled flights. There is regular air communication with many cities of the country. The main seaports are Bangkok, Sattahip, Phuket, Songkhla, Kantang. Most imports and exports pass through the port of Bangkok.
Money circulation and state budget.
The monetary unit of Thailand is baht (100 satang). The Bank of Thailand, founded in 1942, is responsible for the state of the country's financial system. Since 1975, a securities market known as the Stock Exchange of Thailand has been operating in the country under the auspices of the state. In the fiscal year 1996/97, the country's budget amounted to $25 billion. A significant source of income is foreign tourism (about $7 billion a year).
SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Household aspects.
The diet of the people of Thailand is based on rice and fish seasoned with shrimp, peppers and vegetables, and is complemented by fruits. The local cuisine shows considerable regional variation, but it usually features curry (a spicy Indian seasoning) and noodles.
The dwellings of the Thais correspond to the conditions of a tropical climate. The design of pile houses provides protection from direct sunlight and from rain. In the past, buildings were built from wooden beams and bamboo, and the roofs were covered with palm leaves. Now, especially in cities, modern concrete structures are used in construction, and the houses have running water and electricity.
Thanks to the development of health care, it has been possible to extend life expectancy and reduce child mortality, which is relatively low by the standards of developing countries. Since the late 1980s, AIDS has been a serious threat to public health.
Religious aspects.
Buddhism, the religion of the majority of the population, remains a powerful force in Thai society. Center social life a local monastery traditionally remains in the village; it is believed that every young man should spend some time in it as a novice. In addition to religious activities, the monastery often takes on the duties of a school, a hospital, a place of rest. Thai Buddhism is syncretic in nature, absorbing elements of Hinduism, Confucianism, Taoism and animism.
There are Chinese and Hindu temples in most populous cities of the country, and mosques are found in large settlements in the south.
Holidays.
The main traditional holidays in Thailand are closely related to the seasons of the year. Songkhran (New Year), which marks the beginning of astronomical spring, falls on April 12-14, the celebrations last for three days and are accompanied by pouring water on each other and cult rites in honor of the Buddha. In May, the royal plowing festival begins, which officially opens the new agricultural season, and the Buddhist festival of Visakha Puja, dedicated to the birth, enlightenment and death of the Buddha. In September, the Ok-Phansa holiday is observed, timed to coincide with the end of the rainy season, when many monks have to spend a long time in seclusion. Kathin is celebrated at the end of the rice harvest in November and is combined with the presentation of gifts to the monks, which will be useful in the upcoming cold season. In November, there is another holiday - Loykrathong, which is said to have its origins in Brahminism: on the full moon, small lotus-shaped rafts with lit candles are launched along the rivers, which should relieve all adversity. The European New Year and European Christmas are celebrated as secular festivities.
Education system.
In 1995, illiteracy among men was only 4%, and among women - 8%. Elementary education compulsory and free of charge, although the cost of uniforms, textbooks and transport forces some children to drop out of school. Secondary education is also supported by the state, but this stage of education is optional and more expensive for parents, so the number of students here is much less than in primary school.
Thailand has a network of universities, technical, pedagogical and agricultural institutes and colleges. The oldest of the universities are Chulalongkorn in Bangkok (founded in 1917) and Thammasart (1933), among the most famous are Ramkhamhaeng, Kasetsat and Mahidon.
Literature, theatrical and musical art.
Thai literature relied on classical sources, among which the Indian epic is especially important. Ramayana. Several versions of this work appeared in Thai and became known as Ramakiyan and turned into a scenario basis for numerous opera and drama productions. historical drama Inao, borrowed from Java, and historical novel Sam Kok(a variant of the Chinese novel three kingdoms) also found a second home in Thailand. Religious literature is devoted to stories about the life of the Buddha, among which the canonical version stands out. Pattama Sompothyan.
Contemporary writers in Thailand often refer to genres that developed in Europe. Novels and short stories have gained popularity, and many classics of Thai literature have a prose version. The attention of the mass reader is increasingly drawn to chivalric novels, ghost stories and Chinese war stories.
The traditional drama theater in the country exists in three forms. The first of these con is a pantomime theater with masked male actors; the stage action is conveyed with the help of emphatically stylized movements, dances and music. As a rule, the plot of productions is drawn from Ramakiana. The second type is lacon, the actors play in make-up, using gestures that are given a certain meaning, to the music. Performances are usually staged based on poetic drama. Inao and romantic folk tales. The third type of drama theater - slaves, ballet interludes between acts of dramatic productions And lacon. In the south of Thailand, puppet and shadow theaters are also common.
Although the dramatic performances that have come down from the depths of centuries do not leave the stage, performances are also staged according to the scenarios of modern Western authors. This process began under King Rama VI (reigned 1910–1925), who was himself a playwright and translated many of Shakespeare's plays into Thai. Thai movies and TV shows often borrow plot and characters from national literature.
Traditional Thai music is related to Chinese, which was facilitated by the similarity of musical instruments. When composing it, the diatonic scale is used. Folk music has its own stylistic characteristics in different parts of Thailand. So, in the north and northeast, it reveals a connection with the Lao melos. In popular modern music, based mainly on Western pop music, the influence of local folklore traditions still remains.
Mass media.
Thailand publishes several dozen daily newspapers in Thai and Chinese, three in English. The newspapers with the largest circulations are Tai Rat (Thai), Daily News (English), Siyam Rat (Thai), Xixian Ribao (Chinese), Jinghua Ribao (Chinese). , Bangkok Post (English), Nation (English). Radio and television are controlled by the government. The state-owned radio, Radio Thailand, broadcasts programs throughout the country in the Central Thai dialect. In addition, there are several local radio stations and 11 TV stations.
STORY
Early period.
The ancestors of the Tai migrated, probably from South China. These migrations took place along the river valleys over several centuries. In the 11th-12th centuries. migrants reached the borders of the Khmer state of Cambujadesh, the center of which was Angkor (on the territory of modern Cambodia). Among the inhabitants of the lands subject to him, the majority were Mons.
The first Tai, referred to in the Angkor chronicles as Siamese, apparently reached a high level of culture and social organization due to contacts with the Khmer and Mon civilization. Over time, the Thai began to play an important role in the life of the Angkorian state.
Gradually, the Siamese achieved autonomy, and in 1238 independence, having founded their own state of Sukhothai with the capital of the same name (in modern Russian transcription Sukhothai) in the north of the Central Plains. Small Thai principalities also arose in northern Thailand (Lanna), in the south of Laos (Phayau) and in the south of the Central Plain (Lopburi). At the end of the 14th century The state of Lopburi, with its center in the city of Ayutthaya (now Ayutthaya), subjugated the kingdom of Sukhothai and extended its power to southern Laos, southern Burma and most of peninsular Thailand. In the middle of the 15th century Angkor was also conquered. According to legend, many artists, artisans and Brahmin priests were resettled from there to Ayutthaya.
The Siamese adopted many elements of culture from the conquered peoples: the script for writing, Hindu and Buddhist religious ideas, styles of fine arts and architecture, and the system of government. Like the Khmer monarchs, the Thai kings believed that the lavish court rituals and rituals borrowed from the Hindus would strengthen their own power and authority. From the palace practice of neighbors, the upper strata of Siamese society adopted many cultural achievements, including in the field of fiction, theater and the construction of places of worship.
By the end of the 15th century the formation of the Siamese feudal state was basically completed, which was enshrined in the code of laws of King Trailok (Boromotrailokanat) on the military, civil and provincial hierarchy. Peasants were obliged to perform labor service and pay taxes to landowners, whose status and wealth depended on the location of the king. In turn, the feudal lords were obliged to supply soldiers to the king and pay taxes. The country was sparsely populated, so in the wars of Siam with Laos and Burma, the parties sought to capture and move people rather than territorial gains. Entire villages were forcibly resettled by the victors.
Contacts with Europeans.
In the 16th and 17th centuries Siam began to establish links with European merchants. Trade with China and Japan was more regular, but the Siamese kings took a particular interest in firearms from Europe. Some rulers specially sent their emissaries there so that they would get acquainted with the technique of making guns and buy them for the needs of the kingdom. The political situation in Siam in the 17th century. was unstable: civil wars and armed clashes became frequent occurrences during the succession to the throne. Foreign merchants and adventurers often intervened in such conflicts.
Absolutist rule of the Chakri dynasty.
The less stable the situation in Siam became, the more aggressive the Konbaun dynasty, which had established itself in Burma, became more aggressive. Ultimately, the Burmese army succeeded in capturing Ayutthaya, the capital of Siam, in 1767, but it was soon forced to withdraw due to the invasion of Burma by Chinese troops. In the resulting power vacuum, five pretenders, each of whom dominated a certain part of the ruined kingdom, entered the struggle for the throne, which ended with the victory of Pya Taksin, who established his capital at Thonburi, near the mouth of the Chao Phraya River. Subsequently, he was deposed by one of his generals - Phraya Chakri, who moved the capital to the opposite bank of the Chao Phraya River, to Bangkok. All the kings of the new dynasty received the name Rama (currently Rama IX rules).
Rama I (reigned 1782-1809) and Rama II (1809-1824) took up the consolidation of the state and restored the system of feudal relations, in many respects similar to that which existed under the rulers of Ayutthaya. Rama III (1824–1851) and Rama IV (1851–1868) established relations with the West on a more systematic basis, signed trade agreements with European states and the United States, and abolished the royal monopoly on foreign trade. Rama IV, also known as King Monkut, studied Western languages and sciences and invited teachers from Europe and America to his court.
His son Rama V, or King Chulalongkorn (1868-1910), undertook a restructuring of the state apparatus, abolished the old system of government based on vassalage, and instead formed a bureaucratic structure modeled on the British colonial administration in Burma. Chulalongkorn actively promoted the construction of railways and the development of communications, which strengthened the authority of the central government in peripheral areas, and carried out the modernization of the armed forces. The king had to renounce the rights to some areas dependent on Siam in Cambodia and Laos in favor of the French and to the border vassal sultanates in Malaya in favor of the British. Nevertheless, Siam was the only country in Southeast Asia that retained its independence.
Strengthening internal stability and access to world markets contributed to the economic growth of Siam, which continued until the global economic crisis of the 1930s. Siamese peasants painlessly moved from consumer production to commodity production, taking up the cultivation of rice for export. The rapid growth of the rice market contributed to the concentration of capital in the hands of landowners and entrepreneurs belonging to the Thai and Chinese ethnic communities.
Trade and small industry developed successfully thanks to the efforts of the Chinese who arrived in the country. Their influx in 1900-1930 was due not only to favorable opportunities in Siam, but also to the devastation in China itself during the civil war.
The period from the 1932 coup d'état to the end of World War II.
Strong centralized political structures successfully functioned within the framework of an absolutist system under the authoritative and active King Rama V. At the same time, the country's economic rise and the spread of education predetermined the emergence of a new ambitious elite. In 1932, a small group of officials and the military carried out a bloodless coup. King Rama VII Prachatipok (1925-1935) was forced to transfer executive power to the government. In the new constitution, the prerogatives of the monarch were limited.
However, radical changes have not been implemented. The established middle class, including Chinese entrepreneurs, showed little political activity. The rivalry between the bureaucracy and the army was mainly affected, and in the end, the highest officers won. One of the coup's main masterminds, the legal professor Pridi Panomiong, proposed a socialist economic program that met with disapproval in military circles. In 1933 a putsch was made, and the military re-established control over the government. Later that year, supporters of the monarchy attempted a rebellion, which was put down by one of Pridi Panomiong's main opponents, Phibunsonggram. In 1939, the state was officially renamed the Kingdom of Thailand.
In 1941, Japanese troops invaded the country, breaking the short resistance of the Thais. The Prime Minister of Thailand in 1938–1944 Pibunsonggram took a course in support of Japan. Pridi Panomiong went underground and organized resistance to the invaders. During the Second World War, the situation in Thailand remained relatively calm, and the country, thanks to the Free Tang movement, led by Pridi Panomiong, even maintained a good relationship with the United States, although it was listed as an ally of Japan.
Cold War and Vietnam War.
Under Pridi Panomiong, who headed the government in March-August 1946, the country was again renamed Siam. In 1947, as a result of a coup, Pridi's cabinet was dismissed. In 1949, the former name of the country, the Kingdom of Thailand, was restored.
During these years, the army again turned into the dominant political force, which was facilitated by the weakness of civil parties and the imperfection of the state system. Military governments led by Pibun Songgram (1948–1957), Sarit Thanarat (1959–1963) and Thanom Kittikachon (1963–1973) remained loyal to the alliance with the United States. During the Vietnam War, American air bases were located in northeastern Thailand. In 1967-1972, the Thai combat formations provided support to the South Vietnamese regime. In return, Thailand was provided with large American economic and military assistance, amounting (in 1950-1975) to approx. $2 billion US military forces were withdrawn from Thailand in 1973.
Modern Thailand (1970 to the beginning of the 21st century)
In the early 1970s, Thanom Kittikachon suspended the constitution and banned political parties, citing domestic tensions and an economic downturn. The proposed new text of the constitution provided for the formation of a supreme legislative body solely by appointment. This led in 1973 to student demonstrations that turned into unrest that swept the whole country. The army refused to comply with the order to suppress them, and the officers supported mass demands for the formation of a civilian government. A new constitution was adopted in 1974, and civilian governments were in power until 1976.
During the period of democratic rule in 1973-1976, strikes, demonstrations and assassinations of political figures repeatedly took place in Thailand. On this basis, confidence in the constitutional order was undermined and a split arose in society. Therefore, the coup of 1976 was approved in conservative circles and the middle class, as well as the military. Nominated by the military for the post of prime minister, Tanin Kraivicien brutally suppressed all manifestations of dissent. In 1977 the government was headed by the more moderate General Kriangsak Chamanan, who was succeeded in 1980 by General Prem Tinsulanond.
Thailand in the late 20th - early 21st century
In the 1980s, political extremism began to decline, and economic growth accelerated. The main source of foreign exchange was foreign tourism, which was partly stimulated by the flourishing of the sex business. Thailand's traditional textile exports have been relegated to the background.
The emergence of a middle class accompanied the economic development of the country and determined the revival of opposition to military power, although the government of Prem Tinsulanonda pursued a balanced and liberal policy. In 1988, retired General Chatichai Chunhavan took over as prime minister, whose government was overthrown in another bloodless coup on February 23, 1991. Anand Panyarachun, a diplomat, was temporarily appointed to the post of prime minister. The constitution was suspended, martial law was introduced, and both houses of parliament were dissolved. In March 1992 parliamentary elections were held. They were won by the Samakhi Tham military party, which nominated General Suchind Kraprayun to the post of head of government.
In May 1992, anti-government street demonstrations began in Bangkok. The government declared a state of emergency in the country and ordered the army units to open fire to disperse the demonstrators. This action provoked unrest in the capital and other cities.
The violence was stopped only after the intervention of King Rama IX (Bhumibol Adulyadej), who called for an end to the confrontation. Suchinda Kraprayun lost the support of his supporters and resigned. Anand Panyarachun again became his successor. In the new parliamentary elections in September 1992, a bloc of civil parties won the majority of seats. The government was headed by Chuan Leekpai, leader of the Democratic Party.
As a result of the scandal that erupted around land reform, the coalition of civil parties broke up, and the prime minister was forced to dissolve parliament on May 19, 1995. After elections held in July, the government coalition was led by a former businessman and leader of the National Party, Banharn Silpa-archa. However, a year later, due to corruption in the government and the inability to manage the country's economy, a vote of no confidence was expressed in him, and in September 1996 parliament was dissolved. As a result of the November elections, a government led by General Chavalit Yongchayut came to power.
In mid-1997, an economic crisis broke out in Thailand. Due to the need to pay off the public debt and reduce foreign exchange earnings, the government was forced to devalue the baht. To halt a further economic downturn, the IMF offered a large loan but demanded budget cuts, tax reform, and the privatization of many state-owned enterprises. A wave of anti-government demonstrations swept through Bangkok, and under public pressure, Prime Minister Yongchayut was forced to resign in November 1997. He was replaced by former Prime Minister Chuan Leekpai. However, in 1998 the economic downturn continued, with the baht devalued by almost 50%. Elections were held in 2001, which were won by the Tai Rak Tai (TRT) party, led by Thaksin Shinawatra. During the election campaign, he promised economic prosperity, while relying on small businesses and farmers. His party, along with two other small parties, formed a governing coalition that won 325 out of 500 parliamentary seats. Thaksin Shinawatra became prime minister. Subsequently, his party merged with the New Hope parties and the Liberal Democratic Party, winning a simple majority in Parliament.
In 2006, the TRT party again won the parliamentary elections, and Thaksin Shinawatra was again elected prime minister.
On December 26, 2004, a powerful Indian Ocean earthquake triggered a tsunami that killed more than 250,000 throughout the region. In Thailand, the impact mainly fell on the western shore of the Indian Ocean. The tsunami destroyed many settlements along more than 480 km of the coastline, millions of people were left homeless, in dire need of food, water, and medical care.
In 2006, a political crisis erupted in Thailand. Thaksin Shinawatra was accused of corruption and abuse of power, in response to the accusations, he dissolved parliament and called new elections for April 2006. Three opposition parties boycotted participation in the elections. The TRT party won with more than 50% of the votes. But due to numerous protests, Thaksin Shinawatra had to resign on the second day after the election, annul the election results, and power passed into the hands of his deputy. New elections were called. In May 2006 he returned to the government as interim prime minister. In September of the same year, while Thaksin Shinawatra was at the UN General Assembly in New York, there was a military coup.
The coup was led by General Sonthi Bunyaratkalina. The Council for Democratic Reforms was organized, the constitution of 1997 was repealed. The organizers of the coup stated that their goal was to "preserve democracy and transfer power to a civilian government, followed by elections." Surayud Chulanon was appointed acting prime minister until elections were held at the end of 2007.
In 2006, by decision of the Constitutional Court, the TRT party was banned due to violations of the electoral law. Thus, Thaksin Shinawatra and the top leadership of this party could not take part in political activities for 5 years.
In December 2007 new elections were held. The victory was won by the People's Power Party, created from the former Tai Rak Tai Party. Together with 5 small parties, they formed a coalition. Samak Suntaravet, leader of the PPP and associate of Thaksin Shinawatra, became prime minister. In 2008, he was suspended from his position for participating in a culinary program on television and receiving an award. Sonchat Wongsawat, a relative of Thaksin Shinawatra, became the next prime minister, prompting mass protests from the non-parliamentary opposition People's Union for Democracy. As a result, in August 2008, the opposition broke into the territory of the government residence in Bangkok, and also stormed the building of the state television channel.
On December 2, the ruling People's Power Party was dissolved by a decision of the Constitutional Court, while Prime Minister Sonchat Wongsawat and 36 other politicians were banned from political activity within five years. The judges upheld the claim of the opposition, which accused the People's Power Party of rigging the results of the parliamentary elections held in December 2007. Sonchat Wongsawat was also suspended from participation in political life for five years.
Mass protests took place in the country, including at international airports. On December 2, Wongsawat announced that he was obeying the decision of the Constitutional Court and was resigning.
On December 15, 2008, the leader of the opposition Democratic Party, Abhist Vetchachiva, was elected as the new prime minister of Thailand. He needed to get the country out of this situation, but the political crisis is far from over. Immediately after the vote, protests continued from supporters of former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra, who was forced to emigrate.
On July 3, 2011, the Thai parliamentary elections were won by the opposition Phya Thai (For Thailand) party. This party, led by Yingluck Shinawatra (sister of Thaksin Shinawapt), unites supporters of the former premier.
On August 5, 2011, Yingluck Shinawatra became the first female prime minister in the country's history.
In the fall of 2013, a political crisis began in the country. The revolutionary processes of the "Arab spring" have reached the South-Eastern region. Protest moods among the population originate from the political crisis of 2006-2008. After Yingluck Shinawatra was elected prime minister, she began to be accused of the fact that the country was actually run by her brother from exile. The reason was changes in the country's legislation, in particular: an amnesty law (according to this law, her brother could return to his homeland) and a reduction in the powers of the Constitutional and Supreme Courts and an increase in the role of parliament. Under the new legislation, the courts were deprived of the right to annul the decisions of the Parliament. These amendments were not adopted, but rumors spread in the country that in this way the return of the former president to Thailand was being prepared.
A protest movement of many thousands began in the fall of 2013 and soon swept the whole country. A special security regime was introduced in the country. The opposition demanded the resignation of the prime minister. The prime minister refused to dissolve the government and offered to negotiate. The army and police took a neutral position in the conflict between the protesters and the government. The opposition movement was led by the Democratic Party (party chairman Abhisit Vetchachiva). Suthep Thaugsuban became the leader of the street demonstrators.
The opposition made a statement about the organization of the People's Council, the body that will appoint the prime minister. Thaugsuban was supposed to be prime minister. The incumbent Prime Minister initiated a discussion by the academic community and legal scholars of the opposition's proposals, including the creation of the People's Council, but these proposals were not supported.
On November 30, 2013, 5 people died as a result of clashes between government supporters and some opposition-minded students. On December 1, a meeting between the Prime Minister and opposition leader S. Thaugsuban took place against the backdrop of mass demonstrations. From December 1 to December 3, the opposition tried to take the Government House by storm. At the meeting, it was not possible to reach an agreement, the opposition presented an ultimatum to the prime minister to resign. The new leader will be elected by the People's Council.
On December 9, Shinawatra petitioned the king to dissolve the parliament; according to the constitution, only the king has the right to dissolve the parliament. New elections must be held within 60 days. She also proposed holding a referendum on the issue of trust in the authorities. The dissolution of parliament means the automatic resignation of the head of government as well.
Thailand's King Bhumibol Adulyadej on December 9 approved a decree dissolving the National Assembly (Parliament). The monarch also set a new election date for February 2. Acting Prime Minister Shinawatra did not intend to leave her post until a new government was formed following parliamentary elections. The high security regime in Thailand was extended until March 1, 2014. The opposition did not support the idea of elections and promised to disrupt them on February 2, because. believe that the elections will not give the people the freedoms they seek, and will only prolong the tenure of the Shinawatra family of millionaires. The country's authorities have announced that they are ready in case of riots to introduce a state of emergency in Bangkok.
Demonstrations and rallies in Thailand, which began in the fall of 2013, continued into 2014. The protests were held under the slogan of the resignation of Yingluck Shinawatra, who was considered by the opposition to be too dependent on her brother, former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra, who has been in exile since 2006. In early May 2014, the court ousted Shinawatra, who was accused of appointing her to the post of head of the Council in 2011 national security his relative, having exceeded his authority and violated the Constitution.
Finally, on May 20, 2014, the army left the barracks and took to the streets. The head of the Armed Forces, General Prayut Chan Ocha, announced the coming of the military to power and the introduction of martial law, stressing that the immediate tasks of the army are to restore order and conduct political reforms in the country. Since May 22, 2014, the power in the country belongs to the National Peace Committee. Martial law was introduced in Thailand.
Literature:
Pendleton R.L. Geography of Thailand. M., 1966
Berzin E.O. History of Thailand.(Brief essay). M., 1973
Modern Thailand. Directory. M., 1976
Ivanova E.V. Essays on the culture of the Thais of Thailand. M., 1996