Evaluation of scientific successes and achievements. Scientific basis for the development of standards for assessing student educational achievements
One of the most important tasks of science of science is the development of a criterion for assessing the significance of the work performed. Such a criterion is necessary for the optimal management of science. The currently used indicators of the value of scientific achievements and the productivity of scientists have significant shortcomings. (1) The main ones are the complexity and laboriousness of calculations (information and economic criteria), the length of the lag (5-8 years for the quotation index and more than 10 years for calculating the actual economic effect), and the limited scope of application. For example, the economic criterion is not applicable to the fundamental theoretical research, to many researches in the field of medicine, humanities and military sciences. Using the publication criterion, it is impossible to assess the objective value of each individual work, and it is unsuitable for judging the true productivity of a scientist. How many little-known researchers can be found who have surpassed Einstein himself in terms of publication activity?!
Obviously, a universal criterion for evaluating and comparing all types of research products should reflect something essential inherent in any product. scientific work. This requirement is satisfied only by scientific information, the extraction of which from the object of study and creative processing is the main immediate goal of science. If it were possible to find a formalized scale for the easy measurement of the logically processed information contained in each message, then it could be the basis for creating a universal and most adequate criterion for the significance of scientific works. We offer one of options solution of this problem (see scale).
The scale for assessing the significance of scientific works is based on the ranking of the two most important parameters of scientific information: class and novelty.
All types of scientific information - data expressed in numbers and in a qualitative description, as well as the results of their logical processing in the form of interpretation, explanation, hypothesis, concept, theory - are divided into 5 classes. Class A includes the so-called descriptive-registration works containing a simple presentation of the results of measurements, experience, and observations; that is, a description of individual, elementary facts (things, properties and relationships).
“Any science, whatever its subject, studies things, their properties and relations… You cannot study anything other than things, properties and relations… Things, properties, relations constitute the concept of “fact” (2).
We refer abstract reviews to the same class of works.
In the era of “information explosion” we are experiencing, when an individual researcher is deprived of the opportunity to familiarize himself with all the literature on a question of interest to him, when in some cases it is recognized as cost-effective to repeat a study rather than trying to find a ready-made answer, the importance of a well-written review of the literature has increased dramatically. The value of an analytical review with a critical analysis of literary sources, with a generalization of disparate facts and concepts, with the formulation of tasks for further research is especially great.
Analytical review is assigned by us to a higher class of scientific information, class B. There are also works with more high level creative processing of the information obtained, in which not only a description of individual facts is given, but also an elementary analysis of the connections, interdependence between facts is made. Individual works of this class may contain practical recommendations of a private nature that do not fundamentally affect, do not change the already developed methods, devices and substances for practical use.
If the message refers to the improvement or development of methods, substances, devices (i.e. those things, properties and relationships that are recognized by patent experts as objects of inventions) for use in practice, then the work belongs to class B.
To the next class of scientific information (D) we included studies in which problematic issues or methods (including experimental methods), devices (devices, devices), substances for scientific purposes are being developed. In cases where the same method or device can be used for both scientific and practical purposes, the rank should be assigned based on the primary purpose. More high mark information suitable for further development science, follows from the fact that, as a rule, objects for practical use are created on the basis of methods, devices and substances for scientific use, and not vice versa. In science, the value of the information received is by no means identical to its utilitarian usefulness.
The highest class D belongs to information containing a deep theoretical development of certain problems, on the basis of which multidimensional patterns have been identified, laws and theories have been derived.
The main characteristic of the value of scientific information is its novelty. The more the received information reduces the uncertainty of the existing knowledge, the more unexpected, new it seems to us. We propose to distinguish 5 degrees of novelty of scientific information from works that do not contain information new to science to truly innovative research. The novelty of the information received should be determined in relation to the time of completion of the study, and not its beginning.
Each class of scientific information and each degree of novelty is assigned a conditional score. The increase in grades goes to arithmetic progression from 1 to 5. This ranking is fair, since it almost equalizes scientists working in theoretical and applied institutes, developing fundamental and particular aspects of science. After all, it is known that a generalizing theory is created only after the accumulation of a certain amount of information about individual facts and the connections between them.
At the same time, it is quite obvious that with the transition from one degree of novelty of scientific information to another, its value increases significantly, and this is reflected by us in an increase in the number of points by an order of magnitude. The product of points "for class" by points "for novelty" is a conditional numerical characteristic of the value of scientific work. The entire flow of scientific information can be divided into 25 types of work from A 1 with a value of 1 point to D 5 with a value of 50,000 points.
The adopted system excludes the same assessment of different types of work - a solid range of points for the degree of novelty makes it difficult to obtain the number of points for the amount of work to the detriment of their quality. The assessment is put for the result achieved by the researcher, and not for the amount of work done. A talented scientist differs from his colleagues in that he achieves high results in the most economical ways.
If the work is done in co-authorship, each of the co-authors must receive on their "account" the full number of points by which the work is evaluated. There is no reason to divide the score by the number of co-authors; otherwise, the use of the scale may be an obstacle to the cooperation of scientists.
Until now, by scientific work we have meant an article, which is currently the most common form of scientific communication. The main content of dissertations, monographs, as a rule, is also published sooner or later in the form of articles. Of course, points should not be awarded to the author for republished materials. This is one of the advantages of using the scale over the generally accepted assessment by the number of publications. The scientific value of a monograph can be conditionally expressed by the sum of points for each chapter.
In research institutions, the following procedure for applying the scale is possible. The first assessment of the article, indicating both factors, is given by the author himself. To confirm the assessment, the article is sent to the expert. In case of disagreement with the author's assessment, the article is sent to another expert, whose decision is recognized as final. The board of experts is appointed by the director of the institute. The scientific secretary of the institute supervises all work on the application of the scale.
We by no means consider the presented version of the scale to be final. Obviously, in the process of work, it will be supplemented and improved. It is possible to introduce numerical characteristic correction factors for certain qualities of the evaluated work. Such indicators, unlike the main ones, will have a local or market value. For example, in the conditions of applied institutes, a multiplying factor for the practical value, the usefulness of the research, can be applied. One way or another, the proposed scale makes it possible to evaluate completed scientific works, measure the contribution to science made by both individual authors and teams of scientists, compare dissertations, monographs, articles, and scientific journals with each other.
Scientific information class | Points | |
---|---|---|
BUT. | Description of separate, elementary facts (things, properties and relations). Presentation of experience, observations, results, measurements. Abstract review. | 1 |
B. | Elementary analysis of connections, interdependence between facts with the presence of an explanatory version, hypotheses. Practical recommendations of a private nature. Analytical review. | 2 |
AT. | For practical use: method, device, substance, strain; classification, program of events, algorithm. | 3 |
G. | For scientific research: method, device, substance. Problem development. scientific classification; process model; scientific forecast. | 4 |
D. | Multifaceted regularity. Theory. Law. | 5 |
№ | The degree of novelty of the information received | Points |
---|---|---|
1. | Nothing new | 1 |
2. | Well-known ideas that needed verification were confirmed or questioned. Found new version solution that does not provide an advantage over the old one (or whose advantage has not been proven) | 10 |
3. | For the first time a connection is found (or a new connection is found) between known facts. The provisions known in principle are extended to new objects, as a result of which an effective solution is found. Designed over simple ways to achieve previous results. A partial rational modification was made (with signs of novelty) | 100 |
4. | New information was obtained, which significantly reduced the uncertainty of the existing knowledge; the phenomenon, the phenomenon is explained in a new way or for the first time: the structure of the content, its essence is revealed. A significant, fundamental improvement has been made | 1000 |
5. | Fundamentally new facts and regularities have been discovered. Developed new theory. A fundamentally new device has been invented | 10000 |
Notes:
1 See G.A. Lakhtin. science tactics. Novosibirsk, 1969.
2 A.I. Uyomov. Things, properties and relations. M., 1963.
1, 2 Sabdenova U.O. 1, 2 Erimbetova A.A. 1, 2 Kalbirova A.K. 1, 21 South Kazakhstani State University them. M. Auezov
2 South Kazakhstan State Pedagogical Institute
The article discusses the psychological and pedagogical foundations of control and the impact of assessment on the development of the student.
grading system
quantitative content of criteria
self-assessment
level of quality assessment
1. System criteria-based assessment educational achievements of students. Toolkit/ National Academy of Education. I. Altynsarina, 2013. - 100 p.
2. National report of the National Center for Education and Science of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan “Results of the international study PISA-2009” // Electronic resource. – Access mode: rgcnto.edu-kost.kz›ru/component.
3. International studies PISA: National report on the results of the international study PISA-2009 in Kazakhstan / 2010 [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: naric.kz›index-49.php.htm.
4. Government program development of education of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2011-2020. Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated December 7, 2010 No. 1118.
5. International knowledge assessment system / on 28 September 2011 [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://ru.wikipedia.org/w/.
6. System_of_knowledge_assessment: qualities of development educational programs students, an essential element educational process[Electronic resource]. – Access mode: wiki/ru.wikipedia.org›wiki.
The Problem of Evaluation as a Component learning activities multifaceted. In the psychological and pedagogical literature special place occupies an understanding of the assessment of both the individual and personal qualities of the student, and the results of his educational activities.
Evaluation of the success of students' educational activities can be expressed in the following forms:
Small forms (manifested in facial expressions, gestures, voice modulation, brief remarks about academic performance, etc.);
General characteristics of the student;
marks;
Evaluative statements (in individual conversations with the student, at parent meetings);
In other forms provided for by the internal regulations of a particular school.
In psychological and pedagogical research, various aspects of assessment are highlighted: the essence, role, functions of assessment, the structure of the teacher's assessment activity, and others. But such aspects of this problem as: the development of a unified system of evaluation criteria for students' educational achievements, the subjectivity of marks, the influence of the personal characteristics of teachers and students on the placement and receipt of a mark have not found a final solution. Without their solution, we believe, it is difficult to successfully implement the task of personality development.
The impact of assessment on the development of the student is multifaceted, it can have many functions. The score can be:
a) orienting - affects the mental work of the student, which contributes to the understanding of the process of a particular work and understanding of his own knowledge;
b) stimulating - affects the affective-volitional sphere of the student, through the experience of success or failure, the formation of claims and intentions, actions and relationships;
c) educational, where there is an “acceleration or slowdown” of the pace of mental work, qualitative changes, a change in the structure of the influence on the perception of objects of the world around the previous experience and attitudes of the individual, i.e. transformation of intellectual mechanisms. Assessment affects the personality of the student as a whole. Pedagogical assessment affects the changing attitudes and opinions that exist in the school between the class and the student.
When organizing the process of criteria-based assessment of students' educational achievements, a number of psychological and pedagogical features of the student's educational and cognitive activity should be taken into account: independence, manifested in one's own desire to be ready and able to expand one's knowledge and skills, find ways to solve personally significant educational problems, adequately assess one's educational achievements. Also, the student's desire to choose an individual educational trajectory and find ways to build it; development of educational and cognitive activity in the process of educational activities and self-study; the desire to communicate with classmates, his interest in peer assessment, i.e. implementation of mutual evaluation; formation of theoretical and critical thinking; selectivity, the formation of sustainable attention - increasing the concentration of attention, purposefulness of perception.
The psychological and pedagogical foundations of control consist in identifying shortcomings in the work of students, establishing their nature and causes in order to eliminate these shortcomings. It is important for the teacher to have information both about the student's assimilation of knowledge, and about how they were obtained. Knowledge testing is a form of consolidating, clarifying, comprehending and systematizing students' knowledge. Listening to the answering comrade, the students at the same time, as it were, repeat again what they themselves learned the day before. And the better the check is organized, the more conditions for such consolidation. If we take into account that the main educational task of the teacher is to ensure that the entire program volume of knowledge is mastered by the children, it becomes clear that one cannot do without a special test of knowledge. It must be organized in such a way that real knowledge is revealed as deeply and fully as possible. Modern tendencies in the development of the assessment system as a whole are to compare individual achievements a student with certain criteria based on a competency-based approach and a new educational paradigm. Based on these approaches, educational standards, putting forward requirements for the introduction to teaching practice educational organizations new criteria-based assessment system.
Criteria-based assessment is interpreted as a process based on comparing the educational achievements of students with clearly defined, collectively developed criteria that are known in advance to all participants in the process, corresponding to the goals and content of education, contributing to the formation of educational and cognitive competence of students.
Criteria-based assessment is carried out in accordance with the content of curricula, forms of control measures, individual psychological and pedagogical characteristics of students; on the basis of the unity of formative and ascertaining assessment, which consists in the holistic use of intermediate and final control of students' educational achievements; awareness, which serves as an effective characteristic of the process of monitoring the educational achievements of students; diagnostic basis, carried out in the conduct of pedagogical diagnostics of the effectiveness of the use of this technology.
Criteria-based assessment determines the goal of creating conditions and opportunities for the formation and development of educational and cognitive activity of students, their creative and research spheres, educational independence and orientation in the flow of scientific information by introducing students to systematic reflection, to the search for the meaning of this activity.
Bibliographic link
Ermakhanov M.N., Asylbekova G.T., Kuandykova E.T., Dikanbaeva A.K., Kadirova R.B., Sabdenova U.O., Erimbetova A.A., Kalbirova A.K. SCIENTIFIC BASES FOR DEVELOPING STANDARDS FOR ASSESSING STUDENTS' EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENTS // International Journal of Applied and Fundamental Research. - 2016. - No. 8-1. - P. 74-75;URL: https://applied-research.ru/ru/article/view?id=9928 (date of access: 12/26/2019). We bring to your attention the journals published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural History"
In our journal (1981, N 4; 1983, N 5), articles were placed where the possibility of evaluating scientific publications based on their citation data was discussed. The authors of the articles have different views on this issue, but both articles note a number of limitations in the applicability of citation analysis as an assessment tool. So far, the Science Citation Index (SCI) published by the Science Information Institute in Philadelphia has been practically the only source of relevant data. The director of this institute, Y. Garfield, took part in the International Book Fair in Moscow (September 1981) and gave a lecture to science scientists and information service workers on the possibilities of SCI in evaluating scientific publications. Lecture in to a large extent was aimed at emphasizing the merits of the institute's publications. New ideas and arguments in favor of a direct relationship between the citation of a publication and its value were not given. Nevertheless, information about some very useful bibliographic aids, including those developed by the Institute of Scientific Information at the very recent times, may be of interest to Soviet scientists. We publish the text of the lecture in abbreviated form.
I can say without exaggeration that I feel at home in this auditorium. After all, any discussion objective evaluation quality of scientific research inevitably affects the most fundamental provisions of scientometrics. And Soviet scientists have always been at the forefront of the development of this field of research, an area that to many of their American colleagues still seems to be some little-known innovation. The very word "scientometrics", which in English-speaking countries refers to this area, goes back to the Russian term "scientometrics", which has been used in Soviet literature for many years. It is not surprising that among the four editors-in-chief of the first international journal devoted entirely to scientometrics, there is a Soviet scientist, Professor G.M. - Professor V.V. Nalimov from Moscow State University. The very concept of citation clusters, to which my speech will be largely devoted, was simultaneously and independently put forward by G. Small from the Institute for Scientific Information in Philadelphia and I. Marshakova from Moscow. So in a sense, today I am in the home of a scientific discipline, which I have been doing a lot for recent years. I'm going to focus on some of the techniques that allow you to use citation analysis to identify significant scientific results and evaluate the productivity of scientific work. The importance of such an assessment in itself does not require proof. More than a million scientists work in the world, publishing articles in more than 50 thousand scientific and technical journals. Most developed countries spend about 3% of their gross domestic product on science, and today one has to ask not whether it is possible to identify important results, but whether it is possible to do without it. The use of citation data for such evaluation has always been controversial. Almost everyone agrees that citation analysis is useful as a management and information retrieval tool. Don't mind that he can play important role in studies on the history and sociology of science. But just mention that citation data can help evaluate the contribution to science of individual scientists, organizations, and anyone or anything in general - and you will encounter the most bitter opposition. There are still objections to even using these data to evaluate journals. But with the launch of the Science Citation Index (SCI) in 1963, citation counting became inevitable, whether we liked it or not.
- To illustrate the principles on which the SCI is built, J. Garfield gave a fragment of the index containing references to the work of A.A. Migdal, published in 1975 in the "Journal of Theoretical and Experimental Physics". He noted that with the help of such a list it is possible to find works that are thematically related to Migdal's article, even if they are published outside the relevant discipline. In this way, the index of references relieves the consumer of the need to submit to artificial classification schemes, which is inevitable for traditional subject indexes.
Fig.2. Map of the opiate receptor co-citation cluster map for 1975
Of course, all this information is not presented here to challenge the fairness of the award. They simply illustrate the power of cluster analysis in examining the development of a research area and identifying the authors of significant works.
As noted above, cluster analysis was originally developed as a tool for scientometric research. But today the Institute for Scientific Information applies this method for bibliographic searches in the field of biomedical sciences. This year, the Institute for Scientific Information offered consumers a new machine array that operates in the direct access mode from terminals. The automatic indexing of this array is based on cluster analysis. Consumers are offered booklets containing the names of about 3000 clusters. Let's say you are interested in chromatin and non-chromatin proteins in cell nuclei. You start by looking up the name "chromatin" in the index. This term is included in the names of 18 clusters. The cluster "chromatin and non-chromatin proteins in nuclear complexes" includes 46 latest publications on this subject. If this number is too high, one can select those works that are most relevant to the topic, that is, those that cite a particularly large number of works included in the cluster. The Institute for Scientific Information has prepared an Atlas of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, encyclopedic in scope, which will be of considerable interest to historians of science. Each of the 100 sections of the atlas will represent one of the biochemical specialties identified on the basis of cluster analysis. Each chapter will consist of a map-scheme of the cluster, bibliographic information about the articles included in the cluster, a brief explanatory essay and a bibliography of the latest publications citing the works included in the cluster. The explanatory essay will include a historical overview of the specialty, note the most important articles that played the greatest role in its development, and the results. Such an essay will be, in essence, a "mini-review" of the development of the corresponding field of science. One of the important functions of citation analysis is to identify so-called "dormant works" - important works, which at first had a very insignificant impact on research in their field, but a few years later were "discovered" by researchers and received many references.
The graph (Fig. 3) shows the dynamics of citation of the article by R. Higgs, devoted to spontaneous symmetry breaking in elementary particle physics and published in 1966 in the journal "Physical Reviews". The article proposes a simple model of such violations. Until 1972, this article was cited relatively little - less than 10 times. Then the citation increased dramatically (55 times in 1978), and to this day she continues to be cited more often than in the first years after publication. Recognition of work can be delayed for several reasons. Due to the clogging of information channels as a result of the information explosion, it can be difficult for an idea to penetrate the barrier of established patterns. A discovery may be so far ahead of its time that it will be impossible to connect it with the conceptual structure of modern science. But it can be ignored at first, and simply because its author is a young researcher working in a little-known organization. In this latter case, it is citation analysis that ultimately turns out to be the means by which a young researcher can gain the recognition he deserves. So we at the Institute for Scientific Information are trying in various ways to use citation data to identify "significant science." The citation data for an individual scientist's work can be compared to the overall citation data for science. But you can also resort to cluster analysis, using it to identify the specialty or field of research in which the scientist in question works, and comparing his citation rates only with those of his colleagues. Unfortunately, the average administrator scientific institution, which has only five-year cumulative volumes of SCI at its disposal, is unable to carry out such an analysis, since the index covers many disciplines without distinguishing between data related to different disciplines. In addition, SCI, more precisely, its "Reference Index" does not include information about co-authors. An independent problem is also the distinction between namesakes with the same initials. I am convinced that many of the objections to using citation data for evaluation stem from the incorrect use of SCI for this purpose. The Institute for Scientific Information is currently working on new forms specifically designed for qualitative evaluation. Many today forget that SCI in its current form is not a "reference counter" but a bibliographic aid. But its very existence, as I noted, makes counting and comparing citation rates inevitable. And if we use such calculations to evaluate the activities of scientists, organizations, or whatever, then this must be done correctly. The Institute for Scientific Information is currently developing a tool specifically designed to facilitate such assessments. We arbitrarily called it a scientific citation analysis system. It should overcome the shortcomings of SCI as an assessment tool: to facilitate comparison specifically between peers scientific specialty, solve the problem of registering co-authors and distinguishing namesakes. It will also help to compare scientists from different disciplines, making it easy to identify differences in citation rates between these disciplines and correctly account for these differences in comparison. It is intended to improve the index of organizations that exists today, which allows you to identify organizations and institutions whose representatives were printed and quoted during the period covered. Unfortunately, in the world today there are no uniform rules for reporting the place of work of the authors of publications. Soviet journals in this respect leave much to be desired and often do not provide any information at all about the organizational affiliation of their authors.
I have tried to show that anyone who wants to use citation data for evaluation should be aware of the subtleties and limitations involved here. A meaningful assessment of this kind is not a very simple procedure. A mere glance at the relevant SCI rubrics is far from sufficient here. However, the general idea behind using citation data to identify and evaluate meaningful scientific results quite legitimate. Conducted correctly, such an assessment will help to better understand the progress of scientific activity.
UDC 001.89(100)
Scientists in the service of peace and progress are united general principles knowledge of the laws of nature and society, although the science of the XX century. highly differentiated. The greatest achievements of the human mind are due to the exchange of scientific information, the transfer of the results of theoretical and experimental studies from one area to another. From the collaboration of scientists different countries depends on the progress not only of science and technology, but also of human culture and civilization as a whole. 20th century phenomenon in the fact that the number of scientists in the entire previous history of mankind is only 0.1 of those working in science now, that is, 90% of scientists are our contemporaries. And how to evaluate their achievements? Various scientific centers, societies and academies, numerous scientific committees of different countries and various international organizations celebrate the merits of scientists, evaluating their personal contribution to the development of science and the significance of their scientific achievements or discoveries. There are many criteria for assessing the importance of scientific papers. Specific works are evaluated by the number of references to them in the works of other authors or by the number of translations into other languages of the world. With this method, which has many drawbacks, a computer program on "citation indexes" provides significant assistance. But this or similar methods do not allow you to see "forests behind individual trees." There is a system of awards - medals, prizes, honorary titles in every country and in the world.
Among the most prestigious scientific awards is the prize established on June 29, 1900 by Alfred Nobel. According to the terms of his will, prizes should be awarded once every 5 years to persons who made discoveries in the previous year that made a fundamental contribution to the progress of mankind. But they also began to reward works or discoveries of recent years, the importance of which was recently appreciated. The first prize in the field of physics was awarded to V. Roentgen in 1901 for a discovery made 5 years ago. The first Nobel Prize winner for research in the field of chemical kinetics was J. Van't Hoff, and in the field of physiology and medicine - E. Behring, who became famous as the creator of anti-diphtheria antitoxic serum.
Many domestic scientists have also been awarded this prestigious award. In 1904, the Nobel Prize winner in fi-
ziology and medicine became I. P. Pavlov, and in 1908 - I. I. Mechnikov. Among the domestic Nobel laureates is Academician N.N. Semenov (together with the English scientist S. Hinshelwood) for research on the mechanism of chain chemical reactions(1956); physicists I.E. Tamm, I.M. Frank and P.A. Cherenkov - for the discovery and study of the effect of a superluminal electron (1958). For work on the theory of condensed matter and liquid helium, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded in 1962 to Academician L. D. Landau. In 1964, Academicians N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov (together with the American C. Townes) became laureates of this prize for the creation of a new field of science - quantum electronics. In 1978, Academician P. L. Kapitsa was also awarded the Nobel Prize for discoveries and fundamental inventions in the field of low temperatures. In 2000, as if completing the century of awarding the Nobel Prizes, Academician Zh.I. Alferov (from the A.F. Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute, St. become Nobel laureates for the development of semiconductor heterostructures used in high-frequency electronics and optoelectronics.
The Nobel Prize is awarded by the Nobel Committee of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the 60s, the activities of this committee were criticized, since many scientists who achieved no less valuable results, but worked as part of large teams or published in an “unusual” publication for committee members, did not become Nobel Prize winners. For example, in 1928, Indian scientists V. Raman and K. Krishnan studied the spectral composition of light as it passed through various liquids and observed new lines of the spectrum shifted to the red and blue sides. Somewhat earlier and independently of them, a similar phenomenon in crystals was observed by Soviet physicists L.I. Mandelstam and G.S. Landsberg, who published their research in the press. But V. Raman sent a short message to a well-known English magazine, which provided him with fame and Nobel Prize in 1930 for the discovery of Raman scattering of light. Over the course of the century, studies became larger and larger in number of participants, so it became more difficult to award individual prizes, as envisaged in Nobel's will. In addition, areas of knowledge that were not envisaged by Nobel arose and developed.
New international awards were also organized. So, in 1951, the A. Galaber International Prize was established, awarded for scientific achievements in space exploration. Many Soviet scientists and cosmonauts became its laureates. Among them are the chief theoretician of cosmonautics, Academician M. V. Keldysh and the first cosmonaut of the Earth, Yu. A. Gagarin. The International Academy of Astronautics established its own award; it marked the works of M. V. Keldysh, O. G. Gazenko, L. I. Sedov, cosmonauts A. G. Nikolaev and
V. I. Sevastyanov. In 1969, for example, the Swedish Bank established the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences (in 1975, the Soviet mathematician L.V. Kantorovich received it). The International Mathematical Congress began to award young scientists (up to 40 years old) the J. Fields Prize for achievements in the field of mathematics. This prestigious prize, awarded every 4 years, was awarded to young Soviet scientists S.P. Novikov (1970) and G.A. Margulis (1978). Many prizes awarded by various committees acquired international status at the end of the century. For example, the medal of W. G. Wollaston, awarded by the London Geological Society since 1831, evaluated the merits of our geologists A. P. Karpinsky and A. E. Fersman. By the way, in 1977, the Hamburg Foundation established the A.P. Karpinsky Prize, a Russian and Soviet geologist, President of the USSR Academy of Sciences from 1917 to 1936. This prize is awarded annually to our compatriots for outstanding achievements in the field of natural and social sciences. The prize winners were outstanding scientists Yu. A. Ovchinnikov, B. B. Piotrovsky and V. I. Gol'danskii.
In our country, the Lenin Prize, established in 1957, was the highest form of encouragement and recognition of scientific merit. Lenin, which existed from 1925 to 1935. Laureates of the Prize. Lenin became A. N. Bakh, L. A. Chugaev, N. I. Vavilov, N. S. Kurnakov, A. E. Fersman, A. E. Chichibabin, V. N. Ipatiev and others. many outstanding scientists: A.N. Nesmeyanov, N.M. Emanuel, A.I. Oparin, G.I. Budker, R.V. Khokhlov, V.P. Chebotaev, V.S. Aleksandrov, Yu. A. Ovchinnikov and others. USSR State Prizes were awarded for research that made a major contribution to the development of science, and for work on the creation and implementation of the most progressive and high-tech processes and mechanisms in the national economy. Now in Russia there are corresponding awards of the President and the government of the Russian Federation.
^ 1.8. Modern scientific and technological revolution: achievements and problems
The modern era is called the era scientific and technological revolution(NTR). This means that science has become a leading factor in the development of social production and the entire life of society, has become a direct productive force. If we turn to the beginning of the 20th century, when major discoveries were made in science and technology, we can trace the process of preparing the scientific and technological revolution. For a quarter of a century, the electron was discovered in physics, the complex structure of the atom was revealed, the corpuscular-wave
the dualism of light and matter, the phenomena of natural and artificial radioactivity were discovered, quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity were created. In life, electricity, mechanization and automation of production began to be widely used; communication facilities developed, radio and television, automobiles, airplanes, and electric trains appeared; new energy sources developed. Advances in chemistry and biology have led to the development of technologies organic matter and methods of controlling chemical processes, in particular the synthesis of many drugs, explosives, dyes, food products, as well as to obtain new substances with desired properties. Science appeared - genetics, molecular biology, cybernetics.
In the middle of the XX century. scientific and technological progress began to have a decisive influence on the world political life. Creation atomic bomb showed that mastering the achievements of science and advanced technologies determines the fate of countries and mankind. The next milestone of the scientific and technological revolution is the mastery of space: the creation of artificial satellites, the flight of Yu. A. Gagarin, research spacecraft other planets, man's exit into outer space and to the moon. Mankind has realized its unity. As expressed famous physicist W. Heisenberg, “... they were not interested in nature as it is, but, first of all, they wondered what could be done with it. Natural science therefore turned into technology. More precisely, it was connected with technology into a single whole. This connection with technology is expressed in the very term scientific and technological revolution. The appearance and mass distribution of computers to which a person can transfer his logic functions and gradually a number of functions for the automation of production, control and management, led to an impressive leap forward in many areas of life - in the fields of production, education, business, science and social life. There has been a dramatic change in the whole structure of life of one generation of mankind: new types of energy, electronic instrumentation, biotechnology are being discovered and used; the entire technological basis of production and management is being rebuilt, the attitude of man towards them is changing, a unified system of interaction between man and nature - science, technology, production - is being created and strengthened.
At the end of the XX century. high-tech products occupy an increasing place in the gross domestic product of developed countries, ensuring its growth; their development determines the position of the state in modern world. Therefore, most countries of the world are making every effort to strengthen their scientific and technical potential, expand investment in high technologies, participate in international technological exchange, and accelerate the pace of scientific and technological development. Economic growth is identified with scientific and technological progress and intellectual
Zation of the main factors of production. New productions demand the highest precision, reliability and stability. A small violation or oversight can cause a disruption of the entire production or a disaster, which is why the requirements for the qualifications and reliability of personnel are so high. High-tech areas combine microelectronics, information and biotechnologies. The spread of high technologies and the increased share of the cost of scientific research in the price of a product (science-intensity) have increased the requirements for the level of preparedness of production participants.
In addition, the time between the conduct of scientific research and its implementation has been drastically reduced; in this case, objects that have not been thoroughly studied are often used, which are difficult to imagine on the basis of previous experience. Hence - a completely different attitude to science. Despite the large share of risk, the possible profit is high. Both the governments of many developed countries and large firms are investing in research and development; venture companies are created (from the French. overture- risk, gamble) firms that attract small investors. This benefits the development of science, as it requires expensive equipment, developed infrastructure, a high degree of informatization, highly qualified personnel, etc. But the merging of science with business has negative consequences - serving the Truth recedes into the background, scientific ethics are changing. The outlook of the people has also changed.
Information to the beginning of the XXI century. has become a strategic resource of society (like food, industrial or energy resources). There was a change in the dominant type of activity in the sphere of social production (first from agrarian to industrial, and then to information). The role of science in society has greatly increased, exerting a huge influence on the worldview. But the worldview is increasingly influencing the economy, politics, social life. In the conditions of the exhaustion of the possibilities of extensive development, humanity again realized its unity. But there are also growing global problems that can only be solved by joint efforts (nuclear disarmament, ecology, security, construction and maintenance of the global information and switching infrastructure). High professionalism is inseparable from morality, humanism, an integral vision of the unity and interconnection of nature and society, Man and Cosmos.
The relationship between man and nature and between people and each other is changing. Life has become longer and more comfortable. Household appliances are equipped with microprocessors, you can communicate, study, buy goods, etc. via the Internet. Due to automation and robotization of activities, a person is being squeezed out of production, the share of creative work is growing, society must continuously educate
learn new things, become a “learning society”. A person has become freer, but he is not yet ready to use the material wealth and leisure that the scientific and technological revolution has given him for the benefit of himself and society. The comforts of life separate people from each other; the development of new achievements of scientific and technological revolution occurs due to the development of narrow specialization; increasing pressure on environment. The rapid pace of development and the high complexity of these industries have led to the need for computerization and automation of the technological processes themselves, their design, storage and transportation of raw materials and products, continuous study of the sales market, etc.
An increase in the number of highly qualified specialists is becoming the main form of accumulation in the modern economy, and people, their minds, are the most valuable strategic resource for which there is a competitive struggle that is not inferior in intensity to the struggle for raw materials. And if a country is not able to finance scientific research, development and development of high technology, it runs the risk of "falling behind forever." The idea of science as a direct productive force is a tribute to the growing role of scientific labor in the total public product. Now the share of new knowledge, embodied in technologies, equipment and organization of production, in developed countries accounts for 70 to 85% of GDP growth, and the share of seven highly developed countries is 80-90% of science-intensive products and all of its exports. Governments cannot make important decisions without consulting experts and, above all, natural scientists.
Science can give a person knowledge of how to exercise control over the state of the environment, how to better organize production, how to provide themselves with energy and resource-saving technologies, how to ensure the security of peoples, but it cannot limit the growth of consumption of one at the expense of the other.
The simplest example is road transport. Automobile exhaust is one of the main sources of acid rain. But switching to other fuels or even limiting the speed of movement is not supported by motorists, and governments do not pass tough laws accordingly. Also, not a single entrepreneur will reduce his profit from production by spending money on treatment facilities, if the authorities do not adopt appropriate laws.
Therefore, the preparation of the public consciousness for the correct perception of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution, the development of competent laws that reasonably limit consumption, and the increase in the level of competence of managers and rulers are of paramount importance. Fundamental science is one of the highest spiritual values of mankind and carries a unifying principle. In conclusion, we quote the words of the Nobel laureate
I.P. Pavlova, said at the beginning of the 20th century: “What we, Russians, need now in particular is the promotion of scientific aspirations, an abundance of scientific means and a passionate scientific work. Obviously, science is becoming the main lever in the life of peoples, without it it is impossible to maintain either independence, much less a worthy position. in the world."
^ Questions for self-examination and review
How was the idea of the criterion of the truth of knowledge formed?
What are the differences scientific knowledge from extrascientific? What is the difference between the natural sciences and the humanities? What is the difference between natural science and philosophy?
What kind general scientific methods used in science? Define the terms "thought experiment" and "model experiment" and give examples.
What is the sequence of stages in the development of scientific knowledge? What is the difference between a disciplinary approach and an interdisciplinary one?
Name the stages of development of natural science.
Define the term "scientific revolution" and give examples.
Define the concept of "scientific picture of the world" and give an example of changing pictures of the world.
Describe the properties of systems and systems approach.
Define the concept of scientific and technological revolution and formulate its problems.
how the strategies of cognition have changed in the history of natural science.
Chapter 2
^ CONCEPTS OF SPACE, TIME
AND MATTER. FUNDAMENTAL
INTERACTIONS
2.1. The concept of "space"
In ordinary perception space understand a certain extended void in which any objects can be located. However, between celestial bodies there is a certain amount of matter, and the physical vacuum contains virtual particles. In science, space is considered as a physical entity with specific properties and structure.
Space and time are universal and necessary objective forms of the existence of matter. “In the world,” V. I. Lenin wrote, “there is nothing but moving matter, and moving matter cannot move except in space and time.” Matter objectively exists in the form of matter and field, forms the Universe that exists regardless of whether we feel it or not.
The main properties of space were formed as the human exploration of territories and the development of geometry (from the Greek. geometry- surveying). Established to III in. BC e. knowledge was systematized by the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid. In his famous work "Beginnings", consisting of 15 books, which became the basis of geometry, he organized scientific thinking on the basis of logic. In the first book, Euclid defined the ideal objects of geometry: point, straight line, plane, surface.
These objects were considered through some characteristics of the real surrounding world or any objects, often for this purpose the ideas of a ray of light or a stretched string were used. For example, the image of a straight line is associated with a ray of light. But it was known that in inhomogeneous media a light beam is refracted; and Euclid himself received the law of equality of the angles of reflection and incidence, and Aristotle talked about the apparent refraction of a stick partially immersed in water. Based on the most simple properties lines and angles Euclid, through strict logical proofs, came in planimetry to the formulation of the conditions for the equality of triangles, the equality of areas, the Pythagorean theorem, the golden section, the circle and regular polygons. In books V-VI and X he expounds Eudoxus's theory of incommensurables and the rules of similarity, VII-IX the theory of numbers, and in the last three, geometry in space. From solid angles, volumes of parallelepipeds, prisms, pyramids and a ball, Euclid proceeds to the study of five regular ("Platonic") solids and the proof that there are only five of them.
Euclid's exposition is constructed in the form of strictly logical conclusions of theorems from a system of axioms and postulates (except for the system of definitions). According to them, the basic ideas about space are defined, which are used by I. Newton in his "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1687):
homogeneity - there are no selected points of space, parallel transfer does not change the form of the laws of nature;
isotropy - there are no distinguished directions in space, and turning through any angle preserves the laws of nature unchanged;
continuity- between two different points in space, no matter how close they are, there is always a third one;
three-dimensionality- each point in space is uniquely determined by a set of three real numbers- coordinates;
"Euclidean" - is described by the geometry of Euclid, in which, according to the fifth postulate, parallel lines do not intersect or the sum internal corners triangle is 180°.
The fifth postulate of Euclid's geometry attracted special attention, and some of its equivalents led in the 19th century. to the possibility of other geometries in which the sum of the angles of a triangle is greater (Riemann's geometry - geometry on a sphere) or less than 180° (Lobachevsky's and Bogliai's geometries).
The position of bodies in the surrounding space is determined by three coordinates (longitude, latitude, height), i.e. visual representations correspond to the three-dimensionality of space. Ptolemy in his work "Almagest" argued that in nature there can be no more than three spatial dimensions. To determine the position in space, R. Descartes substantiated the unity of physics and geometry. Having developed the idea of short-range action, he explained all the phenomena of nature by the mechanical interaction of particles, he remembered the world as a subtle matter - ether. He introduced a rectangular coordinate system ("Cartesian coordinates") - x, y, z. To describe the orbits of the planets as they move around the Sun, it is more convenient to use a spherical coordinate system that highlights the position of the Sun and takes into account that the gravitational field decreases equally in all directions. The choice of a coordinate system is simply a choice of description method and cannot affect the properties of the continuum to be described. Spaces and continuums, regardless of the way of description, have their own internal geometric properties (for example, curvature). A space is called curved if it is impossible to introduce a coordinate system into it, which can be considered rectilinear. Otherwise, it is flat.
The physical world of Descartes consists of two entities: matter (simple "extension endowed with form") and movement. Because the
After the launch of the first satellite, the Nobel Committee will send a request: to whom should the prize be given? Khrushchev will answer that the satellite launched the people and the social system. The “justification” was the secrecy stamp, which was imposed on almost all of Korolev’s developments, and with them, on his personality. In fact, this was not the case - the Queen was well known both in Europe and in America. So the Nobel Prize “passed” by Korolev. Instead, shortly before the opportunity to receive the Nobel Prize, he became the only person in Soviet history, who, without being rehabilitated, was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor.
- · Twice Hero of Socialist Labor (04/20/1956; 06/17/1961).
- · Awarded three Orders of Lenin, the Order of the Badge of Honor and medals.
- · Laureate of the Lenin Prize.
- Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
- Honorary citizen of the cities of Korolev, Kaluga and Baikonur
Self-assessment of scientific achievements
“Everything is going great, even better than I thought, and, it seems, for the first time in my life I feel tremendous satisfaction, and I want to shout something against the wind that hugs my face and makes my red bird shudder with gusts.
And somehow I can’t believe that such a heavy piece of metal and wood can fly. But it is enough just to break away from the Earth, as you feel that the car seems to come to life and flies with a whistle, obedient to every movement of the steering wheel. Isn't it the greatest satisfaction and reward to fly your own car?! For the sake of this, you can forget everything: and a whole string of sleepless nights, days spent in hard work without rest, without respite ... "
“Criticize someone else's, offer your own. Offering - do it.
“A missile under water is absurd. But that's why I'm going to do it."
“You can do it quickly, but badly, or you can do it slowly, but well. After a while, everyone will forget that it was fast, but will remember that it was bad. And vice versa ."
"What seemed unrealizable for centuries, which yesterday was only a daring dream, today becomes a real task, and tomorrow - an accomplishment!" S. P. Korolev
- What was Sergey Korolev [Electronic resource] //Russian Seven