That they are in the process of development. Development
Development -
Development as growth
Development as maturation
reversible (irreversible);
Phylogeny -
Anthropogenesis - r
Ontogeny -
Microgenesis -
are:
dynamic
structural
ontological
There are the following types of development:
preformed
unpreformed
personal development
1. Heredity -
2. Wednesday -
3. Activity -
9. Definition of the concept of development.
Developmental psychology as subject studies the natural changes of a person in time and the related facts and phenomena of mental life. Almost all researchers agree that development can be defined as change over time: the idea of change and its course in time undeniable. Another thing is to answer questions what and how changes. This is where the differences begin. (Sapogova E.E., 2001)
Development as growth. Such an understanding is almost never found in modern science. Under growth process is understood quantitative changes (accumulation) of the external features of the object, measured in height, length, width, thickness, weight, etc. This means that, firstly, growth is just one of the aspects of development, i.e. remain and other; secondly, that growth is only external an indicator of development that does not say anything about its essence; thirdly, growth can only be quantitative characteristic of development.
Development as maturation. This definition of development is used primarily in everyday thinking. Under ripening refers to the reduction, curtailment of development to morphological changes, proceeding under the direct control of the genetic apparatus. This means that such a definition exaggerates the significance of biological heredity and, accordingly, underestimates the significance of other aspects of development.
Development as improvement. This definition is often used in pedagogy and is teleological character, those. it initially assumes the presence of a goal (teleo), which acts as a "perfect" those. the best, exemplary, ideal form of development. In this case, first of all, it is not clear who can set such a goal: is it externally(God, upbringing, external environment) or internally given (through the hereditary apparatus). And, secondly, it is not clear why just such the form of development should be considered as the best, perfect, and not any other (who sets the criteria for "perfection"?).
Development as a universal change. AT as one of the criteria for determining development, the requirement is put forward generality, universality the changes taking place. It means that the same changes must take place among people of different cultures, religions, languages, levels of development. With clear evidence of this requirement, it turns out to be not feasible. First, it is impossible to really establish which changes are classified as general, universal, and which ones are considered as private. And, secondly, with such an approach, a large mass of particular changes will be generally denied to be considered the subject of developmental psychology.
Development as a qualitative, structural change. The definition of development through qualitative changes is connected with the understanding of the object as systems. If the essential improvement(deterioration) of its structure, we thereby return to the definition of development through perfection, keeping his shortcomings. The only difference is that the subject of improvement narrows. If there is no question of improvement (deterioration), then it is not clear where development is directed. And finally, if earlier it was about improving the object as a whole, now it is only about improving only it. structures. In other words, the quantitative measure of improvement is excluded and only the qualitative measure is preserved.
Development as a quantitative and qualitative change. AT In the previous case, the qualitative nature of the changes was taken as a basis, and the quantitative nature was leveled. However, the very idea of their connection is present in all variants of definitions. For example, growth can be viewed as a quantitative change, but some qualitative transitions stand out in it. Maturation is closer to a qualitative change, but it also contains a quantitative aspect. confining only quantitative changes, we take an unconditional step back in the understanding of development. However, by excluding quantitative changes from the definition of development, we lose the opportunity to establish what caused these qualitative changes themselves.
Development as a change that entails new changes. Dissatisfaction with the existing definitions of development stimulated the search and emergence of new ideas. So, G.-D. Schmidt postulates the presence of a close, existential connection between the changes that follow one after another. A. Flammer writes that development should be considered only such changes that entail new changes (“an avalanche of changes”). This definition carries the idea evolutionary succession changes.
Developmental changes can be: 1) quantitative/qualitative, 2) continuous/discrete, spasmodic, 3) universal/individual, 4) reversible/irreversible, 5) purposeful/non-directed, 6) isolated/integrated, 7 ) progressive (evolutionary) / regressive (involutionary). In addition, development can be considered in different temporal dimensions, forming changes at the phylo-, anthropo-, onto- and micro levels.
For a general integral characteristic of development processes, we use categories related not to individual features, but to development as a whole. These are the categories of growth, maturation, differentiation, learning, imprinting (imprinting), socialization (cultural sociogenesis).
The concept of development. Basic properties, principles and patterns of development
The idea of development came to psychology from other areas of science. Charles Darwin's work "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection..." prompted researchers to study the course of children's mental development. Development for the first time began to be seen as the gradual adaptation of the child to the environment. One of the first attempts to systematically monitor the psychological and biological development of a child from birth to three years is described in the book by V. Preyer "The Soul of a Child", in which the author described the development of his daughter.
Development - the process of irreversible, directed and regular changes, leading to the emergence of quantitative, qualitative and structural transformations of the psyche and human behavior.
Almost all researchers agree that development can be defined as change over time. Yu.N. Karandashev singled out the main approaches to the definition of the concept of "development":
Development as growth- the process of quantitative change in the external features of an object, measured in height, length, width, thickness, weight, etc. In modern science, such a definition does not occur, since growth is just one of the aspects of development, its external indicator and quantitative characteristic.
Development as maturation- morphological changes occurring under the direct control of the genetic apparatus. In modern science, such a definition does not occur, since here the importance of biological heredity is exaggerated and the importance of other aspects of development is underestimated.
Development as improvement. This definition is often used in pedagogy and is of a teleological nature, i.e. it initially assumes the existence of a goal (teleo), which is a certain “perfect”, ideal form of development, but it is not clear whether it is outwardly (God, upbringing , external environment) or internally given (through the hereditary apparatus), and why exactly this form of development should be considered as the best, perfect, and not any other.
Development as a universal change. As one of the criteria for determining development, the requirement of commonality, universality of the changes taking place is put forward, i.e., the same changes should take place among people of different cultures, religions, languages, levels of development, but it is impossible to really establish which changes are attributed to common, universal, and which ones to consider as private.
Development as a qualitative, structural change. The definition of development through qualitative changes is connected with the understanding of an object as a system. In this case we are talking about the improvement of only the structure of the object, the quantitative measure of improvement is excluded and only the qualitative measure is preserved.
Development as a quantitative and qualitative change. This definition most fully reveals the essence of the concept of "development".
Development as a change that entails new changes. Dissatisfaction with the existing definitions of development stimulated the search and emergence of new ideas. For example, G.-D. Schmidt shows the existence of a close, existential connection between the changes that follow one after another, A. Flammer notes that only such changes that entail new changes (“an avalanche of changes”) should be considered development. This definition carries the idea of evolutionary continuity of changes.
HER. Sapogova notes that developmental changes can be:
Quantitative (qualitative);
Continuous (discrete), spasmodic;
Universal (individual);
reversible (irreversible);
Purposeful (non-directional);
Isolated (integrated),
Progressive (evolutionary) or regressive (involutionary).
Development can be considered at the philo-, anthropo-, onto- and micro levels:
Phylogeny - the development of a species, i.e., the limiting time distance, including the emergence of life, the origin of species, their change, differentiation and continuity, i.e., the entire biosocial evolution, starting with the simplest and ending with man.
Anthropogenesis - r the development of mankind in all its aspects, including cultural sociogenesis, that is, the part of phylogeny that begins with the emergence of Homo sapiens and ends today.
Ontogeny - individual development, i.e., a temporal distance of the length of a human life, which begins at the moment of conception and ends at the end of life.
Microgenesis - the shortest time distance covering the “age” period during which short-term processes of perception, memory, thinking, imagination, detailed sequences of actions (for example, behavior when solving problems), etc.
The main properties of development are:
Irreversibility - the ability to accumulate changes, "build on" new changes over the previous ones;
Orientation - the ability of the system to conduct a single, internally interconnected line of development;
Pattern - the ability of the system to reproduce the same type of changes in different people.
AT modern psychology the problem of development is intensively developed within the framework of genetic psychology, comparative psychology, psychogenetics, developmental psychology and acmeology.
The main areas of mental development:
1) the psychophysical area of development, includes external (height and weight) and internal (bones, muscles, brain, glands, sensory organs, constitution, neuro- and psychodynamics, psychomotor) changes in the human body;
2) the psychosocial area of development, which involves changes in the emotional and personal spheres. At the same time, one should especially point out the importance of interpersonal relations for the formation of the self-concept and self-awareness of the individual;
3) cognitive area of development, including all aspects cognitive development, development of abilities, including mental ones.
An individual is a carrier of the psychophysical properties of a person. The bearer of psychosocial properties is the personality, and cognitive properties - the subject of activity.
Currently, human mental development is considered from the point of view of a systematic approach, which includes four aspects:
dynamic characterizes mental development as a process that takes place throughout life, that is, it is the age-related dynamics of various mental functions (perception, attention, memory, thinking, etc.);
structural- qualitative changes in mental processes, for example, the complication of memorization processes, the development of rational methods of thinking;
Causal - determination of determinants, driving causes of development;
ontological- clarification of the specifics of human mental development as a biological and social unity.
Thus, a systematic approach to development involves the study of what, how, in which direction, with what changes, for what reasons, develops in the psyche and personality of a person - a biosocial being throughout life.
There are the following types of development:
preformed development - a type of development, when at the very beginning both the stages that the body will go through and the final result that will be obtained are given;
unpreformed development - a type of development that is not predetermined;
mental development- development of cognitive mental processes;
personal development- development of human qualities, moral judgments, motivational-required sphere and "I"-concept.
Mental and personal development are closely interrelated, but not always unidirectional or side by side. In different age periods, they may not coincide and affect each other in different ways.
Factors of mental development - these are the leading determinants of human development: heredity, environment and activity. The action of the factor of heredity is manifested in the individual properties of a person and acts as prerequisites for development, the action of the environmental factor (society) - in the social properties of the individual and the action of the activity factor - in the interaction of the two previous ones.
Let's consider each of the factors in more detail.
1. Heredity - the property of an organism to repeat in a number of generations similar types of metabolism and individual development as a whole.
M.S. Egorova and T.N. Maryutina, comparing the significance of hereditary and social factors of development, emphasize that the genotype (the genetic constitution of the organism) contains the past in a folded form: information about the historical past of a person and the program of his individual development. Thus, genotypic factors typify development, i.e., ensure the implementation of the species genotypic program and, at the same time, the genotype individualizes development. Genetic studies have revealed a strikingly wide polymorphism that determines the individual characteristics of people. Each person is a unique genetic entity that will never be repeated.
2. Wednesday - the social, material and spiritual conditions surrounding a person for his existence. Phenotype - the totality of all the features and properties of an individual that developed in ontogeny during the interaction of the genotype with the external environment. It should be emphasized that the environment is a very broad concept. Allocate different types environments, each of which in its own way affects the development of a person, therefore, when describing the determinants of mental development, this concept needs to be specified. In a broad sense, the environmental determinants of mental development include learning.
Mental development is influenced by macro (country, ethnicity, society, state), meso (region, media, subcultures, type of settlement) and micro factors (family, neighborhood, peer groups).
3. Activity - the active state of the body as a condition of its existence and behavior, which manifests itself when the movement programmed by the body towards a specific goal requires overcoming the resistance of the environment. The principle of activity is opposed to the principle of reactivity.
According to the principle of activity, the vital activity of the organism is an active overcoming of the environment, according to the principle of reactivity, it is the balancing of the organism with the environment. Activity manifests itself in activation, various reflexes, search activity, arbitrary acts, will, acts of free self-determination.
Consider the basic principles of human mental development.
Sustainable development
Components of sustainable developmentSustainable development(English) sustainable development) is a process of economic and social change in which exploitation natural resources, investment direction, orientation scientific and technological development, personal development and institutional changes are aligned with each other and reinforce current and future capacity to meet human needs and aspirations. In many ways, it is about ensuring the quality of life of people.
The subtleties of translation
Various authors have repeatedly noted the inaccuracy of the Russian translation of a foreign expression (eng. sustainable development, fr. development durable, German nachhaltige Entwicklung). Indeed, the definition of the term "sustainable development" means simply sustainable, continuous growth. At the same time, in European languages, the translation of the following words is given as follows:
- English sustainable- stable, viable; environmentally sound, ensuring that future needs are taken into account; development- development, growth, improvement, evolution, presentation, disclosure, result, enterprise, cultivated land, development, production;
- fr. development- development; durable- durable, long-term, durable, durable, durable, reliable;
- German nachhaltige- stable; Entwicklung- development, manifestation, development, creation, design, deployment, change, design, modernization, project, design.
In this context, this translation should have a narrower meaning. This development is “continuing” (“self-sufficient”), that is, one that does not contradict the further existence of mankind and its development in the same direction.
According to prof. L. G. Melnik[ source unspecified 785 days], there is some inconsistency, illogicality of the Russian version of the translation of the term sustainable development. "Stability" presupposes equilibrium, and "development" is possible only if the system constantly leaves the equilibrium state.
Sustainable development of a resource use model that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only for the present, but also for future generations. The Brundtland Commission coined the term; it has become the most frequently cited definition of sustainable development as development that is "meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs".
Brundtland Commission, officially - the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), known by the name of the chairman Gro Harlem Brundtland, was convened by the UN in 1983. The commission was created as a result of growing concern "about the rapid deterioration of the environment, human and natural resources, and the consequences of declining economic and social development." When creating the commission, the UN General Assembly recognized that environmental problems are global in nature and determine that it is in the common interest of all countries to develop policies for sustainable development.
As early as the 1970s, "sustainability" was used to describe an economy "in balance with major ecological support systems". Ecologists point to "limits to growth", and present as an alternative "sustainable state of the economy" in order to solve environmental issues.
"The Limits to Growth" - a book modeling the effects of rapid population growth the globe and the final supply of resources, published by order of the Club of Rome. Contributors: Donnella N. Medose, Dennis L. Medose, Jørgen Randers, and William W. Berens III. The book attempts to model the effects of earth-human interaction, presenting some of the problems and predictions of the Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus in An Essay on the Law of Population (1798). Five variables were considered in the original model, assuming that exponential growth accurately described its growth patterns, and that the ability of technologies to increase resource availability grows only linearly. These variables are: world population, industrialization, pollution, food production and resource depletion. The authors planned to consider the possibility of a sustainable reverse pattern, which could be achieved by reversing the upward trend among the five variables. The last updated version was published on June 1, 2004 under the title The Limits to Growth: 30 Years. Donella Luga, Jorden Randers, and Dennis Meadows updated and expanded on the original version. In 2008 Graham Turner at the Commonwealth for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIRO) level in Australia published an article titled "Comparing 'The Limits to Growth' to Thirty Years of Reality". It examines the last 30 years of reality and predictions made in 1972 and finds that changes in the area industrial production, food production and environmental pollution are consistent with the book's predictions of economic and social collapse in the twenty-first century.
In the Solow growth model (named after Robert Solow), the steady state is the long-term output of the model. The term usually refers to the national economy, but can be applied to the economy of a city, region, or the entire planet.
According to the reasoning of academician N. N. Moiseev, the meaning of the idea is expressed by the term “co-evolution of man and the biosphere”, which is almost a synonym for the “noosphere” of V. I. Vernadsky (see N. N. Moiseev “Development Algorithms”, M .: "Science ", 1987). From this point of view, more exact translation"sustainable development" can be "joint development".
Story
Beginning - 1970s
Concept sustainable development was a logical transition from the greening of scientific knowledge and socio-economic development, which began rapidly in the 1970s. A number of scientific works were devoted to the issues of limited natural resources, as well as pollution of the natural environment, which is the basis of life, economic and any human activity, in the 1970s. The response to this concern was the creation of international non-governmental scientific organizations to study global processes on Earth, such as the International Federation of Institutes for Advanced Study (IFIAS), the Club of Rome (with its famous report “Limits to Growth”), International Institute system analysis, and in the USSR - the All-Union Institute for System Research.
Nazaretyan A.P. believes that the concepts of "sustainable development" in the 1970-1980s "were like medical recommendations to prolong the agony of a doomed patient." Many variants of such concepts for overcoming the ecological and food crises offered to forcefully reduce the world's population.
Conference in Stockholm
The holding of the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972 and the creation of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) marked the involvement of the international community at the state level in solving environmental problems that began to hinder socio-economic development. Environmental policy and diplomacy, environmental law began to develop, a new institutional component appeared - ministries and departments for the environment.
1980s - present time
In the 1980s, they began to talk about eco-development, development without destruction, the need for sustainable development of ecosystems. The World Strategy for Conservation of Nature, adopted in 1980, for the first time in an international document contained a mention of sustainable development. The second edition of the WSOP was called “Caring for Planet Earth - A Strategy for Sustainable Living” and was published in October 1991. It emphasizes that development should be based on the conservation of wildlife, protection of the structure, functions and diversity of the Earth’s natural systems on which biological species depend . To do this, it is necessary to: preserve life support systems (life support), preserve biodiversity and ensure the sustainable use of renewable resources. Studies have appeared on environmental security as part of national and global security.
In the 1980s, the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) called for the need to move towards "development without destruction." In 1980, the concept of sustainable development was first widely publicized in the World Strategy for Conservation of Nature, developed at the initiative of UNEP, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Wildlife Fund. In 1987, in the report "Our Common Future", the International Commission on Environment and Development (ICED) focused on the need for "sustainable development", in which "meeting the needs of the present does not undermine the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". This formulation of the concept of "sustainable development" is now widely used as a baseline in many countries.
Theory and practice have shown that the environmental component is an integral part of human development. The activities of the International Commission on Environment and Development and its final report "Our Common Future" were based on a new triune concept of sustainable (environmental-socio-economic) development. The UN World Summit on Sustainable Development (an intergovernmental, non-governmental and scientific forum) in 2002 confirmed the commitment of the entire world community to the ideas of sustainable development for the long-term satisfaction of basic human needs while maintaining the life support systems of the planet Earth. The concept of sustainable development has much in common with the concept of the noosphere put forward by Academician V. I. Vernadsky back in the middle of the 20th century.
As UNCTAD Economic Representative Igor Paunovich notes in 2014: “Six years after the global economic crisis erupted, a sustainable growth model in the world has not yet been developed.”
The concept and definitions of sustainable development
In fact, it may not be about the immediate cessation of economic growth in general, but about the cessation, at the first stage, of the irrational growth in the use of environmental resources. The latter is difficult to implement in a world of growing competition, the growth of such current indicators of successful economic activity as productivity and profit. At the same time, the transition to the "information society" - the economy of intangible flows of finance, information, images, messages, intellectual property - leads to the so-called "dematerialization" of economic activity: already now the volume of financial transactions exceeds the volume of trade in material goods by 7 times. The new economy is driven not only by a scarcity of material (and natural) resources, but increasingly by an abundance of information and knowledge resources. The specific energy intensity of economic activity continues to decline, although the total energy consumption is still growing.
A significant majority of international organizations of the UN system have included in their activities a significant environmental component focused on the transition to sustainable development. World Bank experts have defined sustainable development as a process of managing a set (portfolio) of assets aimed at preserving and expanding the opportunities available to people. Assets in this definition include not only traditionally counted physical capital, but also natural and human capital. To be sustainable, development must ensure that all these assets grow - or at least not decrease - over time. For the rational management of the country's economy, the same logic is applied that is used for the rational management of personal property.
In accordance with the above definition of sustainable development, the main indicator of sustainability developed by the World Bank is the “true savings rate (rate)” or “true investment rate” in the country. Current approaches to measuring wealth accumulation do not take into account the depletion and degradation of natural resources such as forests and oil fields, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, investment in people is one of the most valuable assets of any country. When switching to calculating the true rate of savings (investment), this shortcoming is corrected by adjusting the rates of savings calculated by traditional methods: downward - by assessing the depletion of natural resources and damage from environmental pollution (loss of natural capital), and upward - by taking into account the increase in human capital (primarily through investment in education and basic health care).
The Earth Charter document was born as a result of six years of international dialogue with the aim of developing universal goals and common values. It was prepared at the initiative of the civil society and was officially adopted at the meeting of the Earth Charter Commission at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris in March 2000. The mission of the Earth Charter is to promote the transition to a sustainable way of life and the formation of a global community based on common ethical principles, including respect for and care for the entire community of life, the principles of ecological integrity, universal human rights, respect for cultural diversity, economic justice, democracy and culture of the world.
The triune concept of sustainable development
The concept of sustainable development emerged as a result of combining three main points of view: economic, social and environmental.
Economic component
The economic approach to the concept of sustainable development is based on the Hicks-Lindahl theory of the maximum stream of total income that can be produced, provided that, at least, the total capital with which this income is produced is preserved. This concept implies the optimal use of limited resources and the use of environmentally friendly - nature, energy, and material-saving technologies, including the extraction and processing of raw materials, the creation of environmentally friendly products, the minimization, processing and destruction of waste. However, questions about what capital should be retained (for example, physical or natural or human capital) and to what extent different types of capital are substitutable, as well as when valuing these assets, especially environmental resources, raise problems of correct interpretation and accounting. Two types of sustainability have appeared - weak, when it comes to natural and produced capital that does not decrease over time, and strong, when natural capital should not decrease (moreover, part of the profit from the sale of non-renewable resources should be directed to increasing the value of renewable natural capital).
Social component
The social component of development sustainability is human-oriented and aimed at maintaining the stability of social and cultural systems, including reducing the number of destructive conflicts between people. An important aspect of this approach is the fair sharing of benefits. It is also desirable to preserve cultural capital and diversity on a global scale, as well as to make fuller use of sustainable development practices found in non-dominant cultures. To achieve sustainable development, modern society will have to create a more efficient decision-making system that takes into account historical experience and encourages pluralism. It is important to achieve not only intra-, but also intergenerational justice. Within the framework of the concept of human development, a person is not an object, but a subject of development. Based on the expansion of human choice options as the main value, the concept of sustainable development implies that a person must participate in the processes that form the sphere of his life, facilitate the adoption and implementation of decisions, and control their implementation.
Environmental component
From an ecological point of view, sustainable development must ensure the integrity of biological and physical natural systems. Of particular importance is the viability of ecosystems, on which the global stability of the entire biosphere depends. Moreover, the concept of "natural" systems and habitats can be understood broadly to include man-made environments such as, for example, cities. The focus is on maintaining the self-healing capabilities and dynamic adaptation of such systems to change rather than keeping them in some "ideal" static state. Degradation of natural resources, pollution and loss of biodiversity reduce the ability ecological systems to self-healing.
Unity of concepts
Reconciling these different perspectives and translating them into specific activities as a means to achieve sustainable development is a task of great complexity, since all three elements of sustainable development must be considered in a balanced way. The mechanisms of interaction between these three concepts are also important. Economic and social elements, interacting with each other, give rise to such new tasks as achieving justice within one generation (for example, in relation to income distribution) and providing targeted assistance to the poor. The mechanism of interaction between economic and environmental elements has generated new ideas regarding the valuation and internalization (accounting in the economic reporting of enterprises) of external environmental impacts. Finally, the connection between social and environmental elements has generated interest in issues such as intra- and inter-generational equity, including respect for the rights of future generations, and the participation of the population in decision-making.
Indicators
Main article: Sustainable Development IndicatorsAn important issue in the implementation of the concept of sustainable development - especially in connection with the fact that it is often seen as evolving - was the identification of its practical and measurable indicators. Both international organizations and scientific circles are now working in this direction. Based on the above triad, such indicators can link all three of these components and reflect environmental, economic and social (including psychological, for example, perceptions of sustainable development) aspects.
Sustainability and traditional economy
The emergence of the SD concept undermined the fundamental basis of the traditional economy - unlimited economic growth. In one of the main documents of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992) "Agenda for the 21st Century", in chapter 4 (part 1), devoted to changes in the nature of production and consumption, the idea is traced, that it is necessary to go beyond the concept of sustainable development, when it says that some economists "question the traditional notions of economic growth", and suggests a search for "patterns of consumption and production that meet the essential needs of mankind." Within the framework of ecological economics, theoretical approaches to the problem of stopping economic growth without unacceptable social consequences, the supporters of this approach created the Center for the Development of a Stable Economy in 2004 to promote this concept politically. The works of Herman Daly introduced the concept of "steady state economy", the physical components of which are limited and do not change over time. Canadian economist Peter A. Victor has proposed an interactive model to explore the potential for achieving a stable but not growing economy. The model demonstrates that even within conventional approaches to economics, there are opportunities to reach a steady state.
Conventional economics argues that profit maximization and consumer satisfaction in a market system is compatible with the maximization of people's well-being, and that market failures can be corrected by public policy. The second believes that short-term profit maximization and the satisfaction of individual consumers will eventually lead to the depletion of natural and social resources on which the well-being of people and the survival of biological species is based.
Economics of sustainable development
The progress of economic science has led to an increasing consideration of the natural factor. On the one hand, most traditional natural resources have become scarce. Moreover, this applies not only to non-renewable resources, but also to the so-called renewable resources - primarily ecosystem resources (ecosystem "goods" and "services") and biodiversity. One definition of sustainable development is sustainable development over the long term, across generations. Since nature is the basis of human life, its depletion and degradation under existing economic relations negatively affects social relations, rising poverty and patterns of production and consumption. On the other hand, it turned out that many renewable natural goods do not have the proper value, which is the source of their depletion and degradation. Therefore, there was a transition to an ecological economy and an economy of sustainable development.[ source not specified 2833 days] At the same time, the interaction of social and environmental factors led to the consideration of another factor of production - social capital.
Sustainable development of territories
The 20th century, which became a period of unprecedented growth of cities and settlement systems, also revealed the need of mankind to develop and implement the principles of sustainable development in the field of urban planning and territorial planning. The corresponding concept was called "sustainable development of territories", which means ensuring safety and favorable conditions for human life during the implementation of urban planning activities, limiting the negative impact of economic and other activities on the environment and ensuring the protection and rational use of natural resources in the interests of present and future generations. In this form, the term was included in the Town Planning Code of Russia in 2004.
Principles of sustainable development of territories:
- In new settlements or quarters of cities, a humane number of storeys of residential buildings (not higher than 5 floors) is created, planning decisions take into account the creation of a convenient transport infrastructure, easy accessibility of administrative, business and shopping centers, social institutions;
- Building is carried out according to the principle of cells, that is, green courtyards, playgrounds are being created; business districts with high-rise buildings are separated from residential green areas.
- When creating a transport infrastructure, preference is given to the most environmentally friendly transport (trolleybuses, trams, funiculars, elevated and surface electric trains, etc.); serious attention is paid to the development of public transport; the use of bicycles is encouraged and supported.
- A reliable calculation of parking spaces near residential areas and administrative and business centers is carried out in relation to the demographic and economic development region;
- Much attention is paid to the improvement of territories, that is, artificial reservoirs are created (where possible), parks, alleys, embankments, etc.;
- The functional purpose of each quarter is calculated, taking into account demographic prospects, regional economic specifics (for example, industrial enterprises are created taking into account the wind rose and other factors) and even macroeconomic realities;
- When creating engineering infrastructure, the possibility of using local sources of renewable energy in each quarter is taken into account;
- The possibility of using in-house energy-saving technologies (devices for providing natural ventilation and lighting) is being laid in relation to the capabilities of the regional energy system;
- An effective system of water supply and sanitation is being created (sewerage with maximum primary treatment before being discharged into water bodies) in combination with local systems for recycling used water, treating the so-called "gray" water, that is, used for economic purposes;
- A system of separate collection of solid household waste, maximum recycling of secondary materials is being created, schemes convenient for the population for composting non-solid household waste are being worked out;
- The architectural appearance of the buildings is consistent with the features of the local landscape, with the existing national architectural traditions.
- Creation of social infrastructure facilities necessary for the educational, cultural and spiritual development of a healthy, creatively active society, taking into account the difference in age groups and stimulating society to active interaction.
- A comprehensive solution to the problem of rationalizing the sorting and processing of waste;
- Stimulation of relationships that set the life of the community in motion:
- business relations within the community, local market for their own, barter relations;
- joint events: construction of new houses for community members, fundraising as part of the development of community members' projects, collections as part of medical care for individual members, joint cleaning of territories (subbotniks), tree planting, festivals, fairs, holidays;
- permanent meetings of the members of the commune to develop a common strategy, decisions on issues of current life are made jointly;
- local self-governing democracy.
- Development of a full-fledged local economy within small communities and small businesses that ensures diversity, self-sufficiency and self-sufficiency.
Literature
- Bobylev S. N., Girusov E. V., Perelet R. A. Economics of sustainable development. Tutorial. Stupeni Publishing House, Moscow, 2004, 303 pp., ISBN 5-94713-046-7
- Gvishiani D. M. Bridges to the future. Institute for System Analysis, URSS, Moscow, 2004
- Khaidukov D.S., Tasalov K.A. Fundamentals of sustainable development of the urban agglomeration // Proceedings of the XIV International Conference of Moscow State University "Public administration in the XXI century", - M .: "University Book", 2017. P. 783-789 ISBN 978-5-91304-707-6
- Khaidukov D.S., Tasalov K.A. Implementation of the concept of sustainable development in regional management // Collection of materials of the I scientific and practical conference "Effective Management", Moscow State University. - M.: Publishing house "Polygraph service", 2015, 206 p., ISBN 978-5-86388-218-5
- R. Flight. environmental diplomacy. International Life, 10, 1988 http://www.xserver.ru/user/ekobp/
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- "Our Common Future": Report of the International Commission on Environment and Development (ICED)": Translated from English / Under the editorship and with the afterword by S.A. Evteev and R.A. 1989
- Perelet R. A. Identification of indicators of sustainable development // Problems of the environment and natural resources. VINITI -1995. - No. 6
- Mirkin B. M., Naumova L. G. Sustainable development. Tutorial. - Ufa: RIC Bash GU, 2009. - 148 p. - ISBN 987-5-7477-2312-1 (erroneous)
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What is development
Caprice unpretentious))
DEVELOPMENT, directed, regular change; as a result of development, a new qualitative state of the object of its composition or structure arises. There are two forms of development: evolutionary, associated with gradual quantitative changes in the object (see Evolution); revolutionary, characterized by qualitative changes in the structure of the object (see Revolution). Allocate an ascending line of development (see Progress) and a descending one (see Regress). In modern science, special-scientific theories of development are being developed, in which, in contrast to classical natural science, which considered mainly reversible processes, non-linear, jump-like transformations are described.
DEVELOPMENT, the biological process of closely interconnected quantitative (growth) and qualitative (differentiation) transformations of individuals from the moment of birth to the end of life (individual development, or ontogenesis) and throughout the entire existence of life on Earth of their species and other systematic groups (historical development, or phylogenesis).
Development
Development noun, With., use comp. often
Morphology: (no) what? development, what? development, (see) what? development, how? development, about what? about development
1. Development is called bringing someone's abilities, skills, knowledge into an active, active state. Development in children of memory, oral speech skills. | Development of skill, spatial thinking, fantasy by special methods.
2. Development called the degree of someone's mental, spiritual maturity, enlightenment, breadth of outlook.
Diagnosis of the level of intellectual development of someone.
3. Development is the process of formation and growth of something.
Uterine phase of fetal development. | The initial stage, the early stage of the development of the Universe.
4. Development called the process of accumulating experience and its application in any production, public and other activities.
Technology development. | The course of historical, social development. | The significance of the teachings of Copernicus for the development of science is immeasurably great.
5. Development called a gradual increase, strengthening of any qualitative or quantitative indicator.
The development of speed has reached a critical value.
6. Development thoughts, ideas, etc. are called the formation of a system of their evidence.
The idea was not developed further. | Any development of the argument does not stand up to scrutiny. | This thinker is characterized by the constant development of his own ideas.
7. Development called the gradual increase in the painful symptoms of something.
The development of blindness proceeded gradually. | Anything increases the risk of developing the disease.
8. Development dramatic work, its plot is called the gradual following dramatic action, pictures, appearance, appearance of images, etc. from the beginning through the climax to the finale.
The development of the plot of the play. | Symphonic development of a musical piece.
9. Development of events their sequence is called, which is established as a result of something, as a reaction to something.
An unexpected turn of events. | However, with any development of events, this company will not remain in the loser.
10. Development call a system of someone's joint, interrelated actions aimed at achieving some qualitative result.
Rapid pace of development. | Development directions. | Slow down the development of production. | Development of the region.
Dictionary Russian language Dmitrieva. D.V. Dmitriev. 2003 .
Synonyms:
See what "development" is in other dictionaries:
Progressive movement, evolution, transition from one state to another. R. is opposed to “creation”, “explosion”, appearance from nothing, as well as spontaneous formation from chaos and “catastrophism”, which implies a sudden, one-time replacement ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
DEVELOP, DEVELOPMENT Verbs develop develop and reflexive develop develop in the Russian literary language up to the very late XVIII in. expressed only specific meanings (sometimes with a professional connotation), directly arising from their morphological ... History of words
- (development) A multidimensional process, usually involving a change in state from less satisfactory to more satisfactory. Development is a normative concept, it does not have a single generally accepted definition. Some people think that... ... Political science. Dictionary.
DEVELOPMENT, development, pl. no, cf. (book). 1. Action according to Ch. develop develop. Muscle development through gymnastics. 2. State according to Ch. develop develop. Industry development. 3. The process of transition from one state to another, more ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
Progress, improvement, evolution, growth; development, forging, formation, education; development, outlook; process, progressive movement, step forward, sophistication, proliferation, range of interests, clarification, flow, ontogeny, course, ... ... Synonym dictionary
The biological process of closely interrelated quantitative (growth) and qualitative (differentiation) transformations of individuals from the moment of birth to the end of life (individual development, or ontogenesis) and throughout the entire lifetime of life on ...
International credit operations contributed to the formation of the world MONEY MARKET, the most important sectors of which are the American money market and the European market, controlled by transnational banks and international ... ... Financial vocabulary
development- DEVELOPMENT is an irreversible, progressive change in the objects of the spiritual and material world in time, understood as linear and unidirectional. In European philosophy, the concept of R. became dominant in modern times, when it was established ... ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science
development- DEVELOPMENT, perspective, formation, formation, evolution ... Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms of Russian speech
DEVELOPMENT, directed, natural change in nature and society. As a result of development, a new qualitative state of the object of its composition or structure arises. There are two forms of development: evolutionary, associated with gradual ... ... Modern Encyclopedia
Directed, regular change; as a result of development, a new qualitative state of the object of its composition or structure arises. There are two forms of development: evolutionary, associated with gradual quantitative changes in the object (see ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Books
- Child development from 3 to 5 years (set of 5 books), A. S. Galanov. "Child development from 3 to 5 years" - educational and play set for parents. Inside you will find: development calendar; guidelines; sets of useful games for physical and…
Parameter name | Meaning |
Article subject: | Development processes |
Rubric (thematic category) | culture |
Some developmental processes, such as growth during prenatal or early puberty, or hair thinning, are primarily biological. The data confirm that early speech development is also primarily biologically determined, as noted later in this chapter (see also chapter 5). Many other aspects of development, such as learning to count, using the Internet, or developing a taste for sushi, may depend mainly on personal experience. Assigning features of speech patterns, vocabulary, ʼʼʼʼʼʼ, and intonation of people you grew up with or learned a second language with is an additional example of the development that takes place. for the most part influenced by experience.
At the same time, most of the development that occurs during a person's life path is the result of successful interactions between biology and experience. Development as a whole cannot be defined as determined by purely biological factors or only by the influence of experience; rather, it is a continuous dynamic interplay of these two underlying causes. Suppose you were born with some intellectual potential based on the specific nature of your central nervous system. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, a certain continuum is biologically set, within which your intelligence may decrease from time to time. But how intelligent you are
Chapter 1. Perspectives and methods of research 21
life today is also determined by your childhood nutrition, your experiences at home and school, and many other even more seemingly secondary factors. As another example, let's assume that you were born with some particular personality trait, such as shyness or social skills. However, your personality has been shaped by the interactions you have with other people throughout your life, the awareness of the sense of self you acquired as an infant, the sociocultural environment in which you grew up, and many other factors.
Gone are the days when theorists concentrated on individual components of development, up to complete exclusion all the rest, as noted earlier. Similarly, developmentalists no longer argue over whether some aspect of the cognitive or personality realm is a function exclusively biological inclinations or exclusively function of life experience. The speech function appears and improves, obviously, through the development of innate abilities under the influence of the experience received by the subject. All children born healthy are pre-equipped with the ability to acquire language. Οʜᴎ spontaneously go through a series of activities that includes listening to speech sounds, pronouncing simple speech sounds, and gradually decoding the words and sentences they hear from the mouths of the people around them (Pinker, 1997). However, it is clear that in order for them to be able to pronounce real words and sentences that are understandable to others, they must hear speech around them in a certain language. However, infants spontaneously display emotions such as anger or distress, but over time they will have to learn how to deal with their emotions in their particular culture. This observation by Donald Hebb (Hebb, 1966) deserves special mention as it was made more than a third of a century ago.
What theorists are still arguing about (sometimes very heatedly) is how much and how the given characteristic or model of behavior is biologically or socially determined. For example, some theorists define the influence biological factors on intellectual abilities up to 75 or 80% (see chapter 9). Representatives of the other extreme position believe that only 25% of overall process development of intellectual abilities. For this reason, the debates of the past are relevant today; they remain, although they have shifted their emphasis.
Heredity and environment. Today, the problem of combining the biological principle in a person and his experience of development most often comes down to the problem of interaction heredity and environment. In Chapter 3, we will take a closer look at the genetic factors that may underlie human development, predetermining its course, and their interaction with the specific effects of the individual's physical and social environment. Theorists who give priority to the dictates of heredity speak of the strong influence of the biological structures underlying the human being.
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In support of their position, they cite data obtained in the course of experiments on animals and in the process of statistical procedures carried out with people. In addition, they emphasize the fact that specific genes that determine development and behavior have already been identified, and especially
22 Part I. Beginning
The third stage of a person's life path is the period of toddlers (the first two years of life)
combat attention is drawn to those of them that cause such manifestations as mental retardation. On the other hand, explanations of human development made from the position of environmentalists (supporters of the dominant role of the environment in human behavior and development) concentrate on the experience of individuals related to thinking and consciousness, and, in addition, on such environmental factors as nutrition and health. , each of which can also contribute to the onset of mental retardation. As noted earlier, now representatives of both approaches recognize each other's points of view. Heredity and environment interact, but theorists are still arguing about their relative contribution to development and how it is carried out. The position they take on this issue determines the direction and nature of their research.
Growing up and learning. These concepts usually refer to processes of change that occur together or independently of each other. Terms such as ʼʼgrowthʼʼ, ʼʼmaturationʼʼ and ʼʼagingʼʼ refer to purely biological processes. Learning is a change that occurs over time and is associated with practice or with experience gained. When development is viewed in terms of maturation and learning, the focus is often shifted to its temporal periodization. For example, how does the biologically determined development of the muscles and bones of the human skeleton interact with his practical activities related to his personal experience? More precisely, what kind of activities, when and how often result in the normal development of muscles and motor functions? Similar questions arise when considering cognitive and personal development, where the process of maturation of the nervous and hormonal systems enters into interaction with the experience of the individual. How can childhood experiences affect entry into puberty, a biological process? Or how the biologically determined phenomenon of menopause (complete cessation of menstrual cycles due to changes in the hormonal system) can be affected by a woman's lifestyle, if it can affect it at all? What are the comparative contributions of growing up and learning? And also, are there ʼʼcriti-
Chapter 1. Perspectives and methods of research 23
periodsʼʼ, during which the interaction of maturation and learning is essential for optimal development? Similar questions will be asked many more times in later chapters.
Critical and sensitive periods. The problem of the interaction of growing up and learning leads to a related question: are there critical times, during which must happen or never certain types of development do not occur? Consider the impact that certain diseases have on the course of pregnancy (see Chapter 4). If a pregnant woman who is not immune to rubella (German meats), exposed to the virus of this disease within 2 months after conception, the likelihood of serious fetal abnormalities, for example, subsequent deafness of the infant or even miscarriage, is greatly increased. However, if the same woman is exposed to the rubella virus 6 months after conception, it will not affect her developing baby.
Another example is taken from the animal kingdom. There is a critical period of time, lasting for several hours after birth, when goslings develop attachment to a mother goose just by being near her. This phenomenon is known as imprinting(see chapter 6). Imprinting in goslings does not occur before or after this period. Could it be that humans too have a similar critical period during which babies develop emotional attachments to those who care for them? Or, to put the question more broadly, do we have critical periods of acquiring certain skills or behaviors?
Theorists argue. Despite recent evidence that early experiences directly and indirectly have a decisive, permanent effect on brain structure (Shore, 1997; see also Ramey and Ramey, 1998), a detailed analysis of temporal periodization is rather complex. It is often more reasonable to argue in terms of sensitive or optimal
test questions to the topic
ʼʼKey problems in the study of human developmentʼʼ 1
‣‣‣ The boundaries of such developmental periods as childhood or adolescence are universal in all cultures.
‣‣‣ The process of socialization is associated with deliberate learning; the process of mastering culture is associated with involuntary learning.
‣‣‣ The scientific study of human development began in the 16th century.
‣‣‣ Only heredity determines the main features of any area of human development and behavior.
‣‣‣ When studying the temporal periodization of human development, in most cases it is advisable to use the terms of sensitive rather than critical periods.
Question for thought What do we mean when we say that development is holistic, holistic and always done in context?
24 Part I. Beginning
periods during which the best and most effective learning of certain skills, the development of certain traits occur. This does not mean that these types of learning and development take place only during these periods. For example, if you learn a foreign language as a child, you are more likely to speak it as well as native speakers than if you learn it as a teenager. At the same time, a child learns some aspects of the language faster and more easily than an adult. Still you you can learn a foreign language at any time in your life, and if you put enough effort into it, you will be able to speak it in almost the same way as in your own language.
Obviously, there is such a thing as readiness, implying the achievement of a certain level in its development, allowing it to acquire a certain model of behavior; before this level of maturity is reached, the behavior cannot be acquired. For example, no special training will allow a three-month-old child to walk without the support of others; at this level of maturity, the infant simply does not have the ability to maintain balance and the critical musculature for making coordinated leg movements under the weight of his body.
The exact nature of the temporal periodization of human development is still not known. The main problem of research remains to find out the optimal periods for the development of various models of behavior.
In table. 1.2 summarizes the key issues discussed in this section.
Table 1.2 Key issues of human development
Heredity and environment
To what extent is development determined by genetic factors and to what extent is it influenced by specific factors in the physical and social environment?
Growing up and learning
How does the interplay between the biologically determined process of growing up and experiential learning determine development?
Critical and sensitive periods
Are there critical periods during which specific types of development should (or never should) occur?
Development processes - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Development processes" 2017, 2018.
Essence cultural development is that a person masters the processes of his own behavior, but the necessary prerequisite for this mastery is the formation of a personality, and therefore the development of a particular function is always derivative and conditioned by the development of the personality as a whole. (31.1, 161) the development of a person from the moment of his transition to work, as to the main form of adaptation, is already in the history of the improvement of his artificial organs and moves not along the line of improvement of natural organs, but along the line of improvement of artificial tools. Similarly, in the field of human psychological development, from the moment of the invention and use of signs that allow a person to master his own behavioral processes, the history of the development of behavior is largely transformed into the history of the development of artificial auxiliary "means of behavior", into the history of man's mastery of his own behavior. (9.1, 63) the development of human behavior is already a development determined mainly not by the laws of biological evolution, but by the laws of the historical development of society. The improvement of "means of labor" and "means of behavior" in the form of language and other systems of signs, which are auxiliary tools in the process of mastering behavior, comes to the fore. (9.1, 64) Two plans of psychological development have been studied with the greatest completeness at the present time. Psychology considers human behavior as the result of a long biological evolution. It traces the beginnings of the most complex forms of human activity in the simplest unicellular organisms Another plan of development has also been studied extremely well. The thinking and behavior of an adult should be considered as the result of a very long and very complex process of development of a child. But there is still a third plan of development, which has entered the general consciousness of psychologists much less than these - this is historical development In the process of historical In the development of mankind, not only the external relations of people changed and developed, not only the relations between humanity and nature, man himself changed and developed, his own nature changed. (9.1, 65 - 67) Not so much underdevelopment can be responsible for the primitiveness of behavior, but the primitiveness of behavior leads to an early stop in development. (9.1, 76) The development of man as a biological type, apparently, was basically already completed by the time of the beginning of human history. This, of course, does not mean that human biology has stopped in place from the moment the historical development of human society began. However, this biological change in human nature has already become a quantity dependent and subordinate to the historical development of human society, the process of transforming primitive man into a cultural one by nature itself. its different from the process of transformation of apes into humans. Or in other words: the process of the historical development of human behavior and the process of his biological evolution do not coincide, and one is not a continuation of the other, but each of these processes is subject to its own special laws. (9.1, 79) The development of human thinking and behavior is driven not by theoretical or ideal interest, but by material needs: primitive man acts more under the influence of practical than theoretical motives, and in his very psychology logical thinking is subordinate to his instinctive and emotional reactions. (9.1, 70) process child development not just a process of quantitative growth of individual characteristics, not a process that reduces only to growth, to an increase. Child development is a complex process that includes, due to the cyclical nature of development, due to its disproportionality, the restructuring of relations between the sides of development, between individual parts of the body, between individual functions of the personality, a restructuring that already leads to a change in the entire personality of the child, his entire organism. at each new level. (7.1, 24) development is the process of forming a person or personality, which takes place through the emergence at each stage of new qualities, new formations specific to a person, prepared by the entire previous course of development, but not contained in finished form at earlier stages. (7.1, 32) development does not simply realize, modify and combine hereditary inclinations. It, as they say, mediates this realization of hereditary inclinations, and in the process of development something new arises, through which this or that hereditary influence is already refracted. (7.1, 68) The environment acts in the development of the child, in the sense of the development of the personality and its specific human properties, acts as a source of development, i.e. the environment here plays the role not of a situation, but of a source of development. if there is no corresponding ideal form in the environment and the development of the child, for some reason, proceeds without interaction with the final form, then the child will not develop the corresponding form. Firstly, if there is no corresponding ideal form in the environment, the final form is absent, does not interact with the initial form, but the child develops among other children, i.e. there is an environment of his peers with a lower, initial form. Will the corresponding activity, the corresponding properties in the child then be created? they will always develop very slowly, very peculiarly, and will never reach the level they reach when there is an appropriate ideal form in the environment. (7.1, 90 - 91) Development is a process in which a person from the moment of birth goes the way to the formation of a developed mature personality, to the formation of a developed mature human organism. This is such a complex system that cannot develop in exactly the same way in all its aspects. man is a single system, but not a homogeneous system, but a complexly organized, heterogeneous system. (7.1, 97) The central fact of child development remains the change in the internal relations of the given whole, the new organization to which the child passes at each new age level. (7.1, 158) the development of a child cannot be imagined as a process set in motion and directed by any external forces or factors. The process of child development is subject to its own, internal patterns. It proceeds as a dialectical process of self-movement. (7.1, 165) the most significant thing in the development of the child is not only that the individual functions of the child's consciousness grow and develop during the transition from one age to another, but it is essential that the child's personality grows and develops, the consciousness as a whole grows and develops. This growth and development of consciousness primarily affects the fact that the relationship between individual functions changes. (5.2, 127 - 128) The change in the functional structure of consciousness is the main and central content of the entire process of mental development. (1.2.1, 217) it is necessary to define at least a double level of child development: first, the actual development of the child, i.e. what is already ripe for today, and, secondly, the zone of proximal development, i.e. such processes in the further development of the same functions, which, not being mature today, nevertheless are on the way, germinate, tomorrow they will bear fruit and move to the level of actual development. (3.5, 434) See Age, Sign, Zone of proximal development, Personality, Thinking, Neoplasms (age-related), Tool, Behavior, Consciousness, Environment, Level of actual development, Function, Language
DEVELOPMENT
1. The sequence of changes throughout the life span of the organism. This is a meaning that was originally introduced in psychology; in the first decades of the 20th century, it was believed that the field of developmental psychology was the study of the entire life span, from birth to death. Today there is a tendency to use this term more limitedly. See, for example, terms such as developmental disability and developmental aphasia, in which the age range is limited from birth to puberty. 2. Ripening. Here we mean that this process is biological and is largely determined by genetic processes. This meaning is perhaps the oldest and etymologically goes back to the Old French desveloper meaning to open or unfold. When the term is used in this sense, it is often contrasted with processes that are the result of learning. See discussion of the term child development. 3. Irreversible sequence of changes. In a sense, this notion of irreversibility is also contained in the aforementioned meanings of the term, but in this case it is noted because of its use in medicine and psychiatry to denote the developing course of a disease or disorder in which the stages regularly follow one another. 4. Progressive change leading to higher levels of differentiation and organization. This implies the positive nature of progress, increasing the efficiency of functioning, maturation, improvement, enrichment and complication. This meaning is usually assumed in phrases such as human development, social development, intellectual development, emotional development, and so on. Note that this meaning does not have the genetic meaning noted in meanings 2 and 3; rather, it means that these processes are associated with environmental factors (learning, nutrition, etc.). It is clear that here we are dealing with a rather loose term. And, as is often the case with terms denoting processes of fundamental importance, its application is very wide. In almost any of the above meanings, "evolving thing" can be anything: a molecular system, bones and organs, emotions, ideas and cognitive processes, moral systems, personality, relationships, groups, societies and cultures. It is not surprising that there is big number special terms based on it; the most commonly used are the following.
DEVELOPMENT
1. Strengthening, strengthening.
2. Bringing to a certain degree spiritual, mental maturity, consciousness, culture, etc.
3. Bringing to a certain degree strength, power, perfection; raising the level of something.
4. Deployment of something in a wide range, with full energy.
5. Expanding, spreading, deepening the content or application of something.
6. The process and result of the transition to a new, more perfect qualitative state, from simple to complex, from lower to higher.
DEVELOPMENT
A progressive process in which the structures and functions that define a person's personality gradually evolve from the biological maturation of the individual to his interaction with the environment. Such interaction is carried out on the basis of genetically determined successive stages of development and realization of innate capabilities, as well as with the assistance of external influences and acquired individual experience. In psychoanalytic terminology, it is used to specifically designate the processes of growth and maturation that are directly related to interaction with the outside world and contribute to the formation of the main mental structures - It, I and Super-I. At the same time, the term maturation refers to the processes of physical and mental growth, based on the innate genetic capabilities of the organism and independent of the influences of the external environment. AT recent times, however, this term has lost its clarity, since it is proved that the interaction with the environment plays important role both in development and maturation.
In psychoanalysis, the concept of development has been studied from various points of view, in particular, from the standpoint of development models proposed by individual authors. Perhaps one of the most famous remains Freud's psychosexual model (1905). According to the scheme he proposed, the development of the child passes through a series of successive stages (oral, anal and phallic) of the formation of libidinal drives; the formation of each of these stages is associated with certain areas of the body and the corresponding sensory reward of the organs belonging to these areas. From the standpoint of classical psychoanalysis, the most important thing for development is the object. However, many of the researchers of this problem rely on other phenomena, considering the stages of development from the point of view of the child's reactions to the stability of the psychological image of the mother, the development of the ego and superego. The main of these functions are: indicator and organizing (Spitz), separation-individuation (Mahler) and lines of development (A. Freud). Similar attempts are being made in the direction of studying the stages of development of the Self, gender and sense of reality. These attempts, however, are not clearly substantiated, and therefore have not received universal recognition.
Common to all schemes is the idea of a predictable sequence of the development process. The individual stages of such a process are defined as steps or phases. The concept of psychosexual, or libidinal, development and the scheme of separation-individuation are usually described in terms of phases, although there is, in essence, no clear distinction between the concepts of stage and phase in the above concepts. Both concepts are correlated with periods of normal development, each of which is characterized by specific structures, sanctions and certain sets of behavioral manifestations. The elements of each stage are inextricably linked and complement the similar elements of the previous stage; upon transition to the next phase, they are reorganized and combined with the "overlying" ones. Although Freud proposed the first scheme of development in terms of libido, in 1938 he expressed doubts about the clear sequence of stages in the development of libido. He was forced to admit that the stages may overlap, and that the behavior that characterizes one stage may be observed in another. Modern research called into question the legitimacy of not only the model as a whole, but also the relevance to the stages of individual personality manifestations (Pine, 1985; Stem, 1985).
The stages of development of libido, object relations, personal meaning and basic structures must be distinguished from the stages of the life cycle, that is, the most general combinations of physical and mental properties distributed over different periods of time at different points on the spectrum, consisting of dependence / independence and adaptation to the main life tasks and responsibilities. The stages are divided into infant (0-3 years), early childhood (3-6 years), latent (6-12 years), adolescence (12-18 years) and mature. The listed stages have their own gradations, and the term infant in the literature often combines the age from the first to the fifth year of life.
Among the models and theories of development, one should single out the concept of lines of development developed by A. Freud (this phrase was especially often used by 3. Freud). From her point of view, assessing the personality of a child requires much more than isolated approaches, such as the development of libido or intelligence. For a complete understanding of the complex process, which is development, A. Freud proposed a metaphorical description of individual behavioral combinations (clusters) in the form of structural units and their "linear" trajectories. From this position, she succeeded in presenting development in terms of separate predictable, linked and interconnected, intersecting and unfolding linear series. At the same time, personality-determining behavioral clusters are complexes of linked mental structures - It, I and Super-I - with dynamic, adaptive and genetic factors. From the point of view of A. Freud, such an interaction of drives, I and Super-I with the environment is reflected in separate sequences of some parts of the child's personality. Taken together, these sequences reveal a picture of success or failure on the path of human development. Typical lines, for example, are: "from dependence through emotional self-confidence to object relations", "from irresponsibility to responsible management of one's own body", "from body to toy, from play to work".
Since the lines of development are considered as innate abilities existing outside the I and the Id, their general coherence and interaction had to be introduced as a postulate. At the same time, A. Freud emphasized that the development of lines is not always uniform, and therefore hidden violations and inconsistencies can be revealed in the structure of the personality. Such violations are the result of interactions within the most complex tangle of environmental, conflict, protective and regressive factors, and also depend on the degree of maturity of the individual.
DEVELOPMENT
regular, directed qualitative change of material and ideal objects. The simultaneous presence of these properties distinguishes P. from other changes. Reversible changes are characteristic of functioning processes (i.e., cyclic reproduction of a permanent system of connections and relationships); in the absence of direction, changes cannot accumulate, which deprives the process of a single, internally interconnected line inherent in R.; they are characterized by the absence of patterns of a catastrophic type. Social practice shows that outside the succession, R., which simply denies what has been achieved by previous history, in essential respects turns into a regression. Data from modern natural and social sciences expand ideas about the types and forms of R. Biology, the general history of culture have shown that R.'s process is heterogeneous. If we consider large lines of R. (for example, organic evolution), then within them a dialectical interweaving of multidirectional tendencies is revealed: the general flow of progressive R. is combined with changes that form the so-called. dead-end moves of evolution or even directed towards regression. R. specific conflicts occurs on two scales: in the form of dynamics or evolution. Any specific conflict has R. dynamics, which in its expanded form includes three periods and ten stages. Long-term conflicts, in addition to dynamics, can have evolutionary vectors R. Conflicts in general, as phenomena of social or intrapsychic life, have evolution R. Its patterns are determined by the evolution of social interaction and the psyche.
Development
tracing paper with fr. defeloprement - deployment, development) - 1. the sequence of changes throughout the life of the organism. There is now a tendency to use the term more restrictively; 2. maturation of the organism, functions, abilities during ontogenesis. It is understood that the process of maturation is controlled by genetic and constitutional factors; 3. irreversible sequence of changes. The term is used in medicine and denotes the development of a disease process, certain stages of which regularly follow one another; 4. progressive change leading to higher levels of differentiation, organization and functioning. Development in this view is viewed not as a gradual complication of certain simple elements and connections between them, for which there is no satisfactory explanation, but as a process of disclosure, implementation, deployment of a certain general plan, programs, complication of the initially given structure; 4. in psychoanalysis - the complication or evolution of infantile behavior into the behavior of an adult. "Higher" forms of behavior are considered, presumably, as a complication of primitive drives and elementary patterns of behavior. In general, such an understanding of the complex from the simpler, elementary is seen as a manifestation of the reductionist tendency overcome in post-Freudian psychoanalysis. The process of development is considered by analysts as the result of the influence of two factors: a) the evolution of innate developmental processes and b) the influence of experience on these processes. Traumatic is an experience that disrupts or distorts individual development. The emerging points of fixation of an attraction or a certain tendency cause inhibition, developmental delay, or characterize a regression to the early stages of development. There are no terms suitable for denoting an experience that accelerates development (stimulating accelerated development) in psychoanalysis. See Stages of Human Development, Stages of Human Life.
DEVELOPMENT
development; Psychogenesis) - psychoanalysis claims that human behavior can be considered in its development, i.e., adult behavior can be interpreted as a complication or evolution of childish (infantile) behavior, and that the "higher" forms of the latter can be understood as a complication of primitive drives and behavioral stereotypes (patterns ).
The term "human mental development" is used in Jungian psychology in connection with a wide variety of concepts and ideas that serve as models. If we turn our attention to the bodily, spiritual and mental development opportunities that take place throughout life, then it will become obvious to us how diverse and multilayered these processes are. In the first years of life, the child's consciousness, constantly increasing, develops from a state in which the child is still completely merged with the figure of the mother and the surrounding world. Although the child begins to say "I", the continuum of consciousness is often interrupted by unconsciousness. Jung believed that, in general, the development of consciousness in women ends at the age of twenty, and in men - at twenty-five. Completed psychic development makes possible a continuous connection between the ego and the unconscious.
Psychic energy is an internal process of development that lasts throughout life, and can be directed not only by good intentions or will. Important "helpers" in development are living symbols that contribute to the destruction of mental unconsciousness and the child's unconscious identification of himself and his parents, due to which he replaces them with personal objects. Often these chosen substitute objects (Ersatzobjekte) bear more or less great resemblance to the personalities of the parents.
The processes of psychic energy are especially clearly reflected in dreams and the symbols appearing in them. The further energy process is carried out in the deployment of personal typology, when a person adapts both to external reality and to internal reality. In the same way, a person builds his energy with the help of four functions, namely: thinking contributes to knowledge and judgment, feelings allow you to appreciate something, sensations contribute to sensory perception, and intuition, as a faculty of anticipation, clarifies the hidden background. The goal of psychic as well as typological energy is the complete realization of personality.
Jung's views on personality development contain a synthesis of innate structural factors (see archetypes) with the circumstances in which the individual finds himself. Development can be viewed in terms of relation to oneself (see individuation; selfhood) or to objects (see object-relationships, ego), or to instinctive impulses (see energy).
In development, regressive and progressive tendencies coexist (see integration; progression; regression), and the process itself is not meaningless (see meaning; stages of life; self-regulatory function of the mental).
The idea of development came to psychology from other areas of science. Charles Darwin's work "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection..." prompted researchers to study the course of children's mental development. Development for the first time began to be seen as the gradual adaptation of the child to the environment. One of the first attempts to systematically monitor the psychological and biological development of a child from birth to three years is described in the book by V. Preyer "The Soul of a Child", in which the author described the development of his daughter.
Development - the process of irreversible, directed and regular changes, leading to the emergence of quantitative, qualitative and structural transformations of the psyche and human behavior.
Almost all researchers agree that development can be defined as change over time. Yu.N. Karandashev singled out the main approaches to the definition of the concept of "development":
Development as growth- the process of quantitative change in the external features of an object, measured in height, length, width, thickness, weight, etc. In modern science, such a definition does not occur, since growth is just one of the aspects of development, its external indicator and quantitative characteristic.
Development as maturation- morphological changes occurring under the direct control of the genetic apparatus. In modern science, such a definition does not occur, since here the importance of biological heredity is exaggerated and the importance of other aspects of development is underestimated.
Development as improvement. This definition is often used in pedagogy and is of a teleological nature, i.e. it initially assumes the existence of a goal (teleo), which is a certain “perfect”, ideal form of development, but it is not clear whether it is outwardly (God, upbringing , external environment) or internally given (through the hereditary apparatus), and why exactly this form of development should be considered as the best, perfect, and not any other.
Development as a universal change. As one of the criteria for determining development, the requirement of commonality, universality of the changes taking place is put forward, i.e., the same changes should take place among people of different cultures, religions, languages, levels of development, but it is impossible to really establish which changes are attributed to common, universal, and which ones to consider as private.
Development as a qualitative, structural change. The definition of development through qualitative changes is connected with the understanding of an object as a system. In this case, we are talking about improving only the structure of the object, the quantitative measure of improvement is excluded and only the qualitative measure is preserved.
Development as a quantitative and qualitative change. This definition most fully reveals the essence of the concept of "development".
Development as a change that entails new changes. Dissatisfaction with the existing definitions of development stimulated the search and emergence of new ideas. For example, G.-D. Schmidt shows the existence of a close, existential connection between the changes that follow one after another, A. Flammer notes that only such changes that entail new changes (“an avalanche of changes”) should be considered development. This definition carries the idea of evolutionary continuity of changes.
HER. Sapogova notes that developmental changes can be:
Quantitative (qualitative);
Continuous (discrete), spasmodic;
Universal (individual);
reversible (irreversible);
Purposeful (non-directional);
Isolated (integrated),
Progressive (evolutionary) or regressive (involutionary).
Development can be considered at the philo-, anthropo-, onto- and micro levels:
Phylogeny - the development of a species, i.e., the limiting time distance, including the emergence of life, the origin of species, their change, differentiation and continuity, i.e., the entire biosocial evolution, starting with the simplest and ending with man.
Anthropogenesis - r the development of mankind in all its aspects, including cultural sociogenesis, that is, the part of phylogeny that begins with the emergence of Homo sapiens and ends today.
Ontogeny - individual development, i.e., a temporal distance of the length of a human life, which begins at the moment of conception and ends at the end of life.
Microgenesis - the shortest time distance covering the “age” period during which short-term processes of perception, memory, thinking, imagination, detailed sequences of actions (for example, behavior when solving problems), etc.
The main properties of development are:
Irreversibility - the ability to accumulate changes, "build on" new changes over the previous ones;
Orientation - the ability of the system to conduct a single, internally interconnected line of development;
Pattern - the ability of the system to reproduce the same type of changes in different people.
In modern psychology, the problem of development is being intensively developed within the framework of genetic psychology, comparative psychology, psychogenetics, developmental psychology, and acmeology.
The main areas of mental development:
1) the psychophysical area of development, includes external (height and weight) and internal (bones, muscles, brain, glands, sensory organs, constitution, neuro- and psychodynamics, psychomotor) changes in the human body;
2) the psychosocial area of development, which involves changes in the emotional and personal spheres. At the same time, one should especially point out the importance of interpersonal relations for the formation of the self-concept and self-awareness of the individual;
3) the cognitive area of development, which includes all aspects of cognitive development, the development of abilities, including mental ones.
An individual is a carrier of the psychophysical properties of a person. The bearer of psychosocial properties is the personality, and cognitive properties - the subject of activity.
Currently, human mental development is considered from the point of view of a systematic approach, which includes four aspects:
dynamic characterizes mental development as a process that takes place throughout life, that is, it is the age-related dynamics of various mental functions (perception, attention, memory, thinking, etc.);
structural- qualitative changes in mental processes, for example, the complication of memorization processes, the development of rational methods of thinking;
Causal - determination of determinants, driving causes of development;
ontological- clarification of the specifics of human mental development as a biological and social unity.
Thus, a systematic approach to development involves the study of what, how, in which direction, with what changes, for what reasons, develops in the psyche and personality of a person - a biosocial being throughout life.
There are the following types of development:
preformed development - a type of development, when at the very beginning both the stages that the body will go through and the final result that will be obtained are given;
unpreformed development - a type of development that is not predetermined;
mental development- development of cognitive mental processes;
personal development- development of human qualities, moral judgments, motivational-required sphere and "I"-concept.
Mental and personal development are closely interrelated, but not always unidirectional or side by side. In different age periods, they may not coincide and affect each other in different ways.
Factors of mental development - these are the leading determinants of human development: heredity, environment and activity. The action of the factor of heredity is manifested in the individual properties of a person and acts as prerequisites for development, the action of the environmental factor (society) - in the social properties of the individual and the action of the activity factor - in the interaction of the two previous ones.
Let's consider each of the factors in more detail.
1. Heredity - the property of an organism to repeat in a number of generations similar types of metabolism and individual development as a whole.
M.S. Egorova and T.N. Maryutina, comparing the significance of hereditary and social factors of development, emphasize that the genotype (the genetic constitution of the organism) contains the past in a folded form: information about the historical past of a person and the program of his individual development. Thus, genotypic factors typify development, i.e., ensure the implementation of the species genotypic program and, at the same time, the genotype individualizes development. Genetic studies have revealed a strikingly wide polymorphism that determines the individual characteristics of people. Each person is a unique genetic entity that will never be repeated.
2. Wednesday - the social, material and spiritual conditions surrounding a person for his existence. Phenotype - the totality of all the features and properties of an individual that developed in ontogeny during the interaction of the genotype with the external environment. It should be emphasized that the environment is a very broad concept. There are different types of environments, each of which in its own way affects the development of a person, therefore, when describing the determinants of mental development, this concept needs to be specified. In a broad sense, the environmental determinants of mental development include learning.
Mental development is influenced by macro (country, ethnicity, society, state), meso (region, media, subcultures, type of settlement) and micro factors (family, neighborhood, peer groups).
3. Activity - the active state of the body as a condition of its existence and behavior, which manifests itself when the movement programmed by the body towards a specific goal requires overcoming the resistance of the environment. The principle of activity is opposed to the principle of reactivity.
According to the principle of activity, the vital activity of the organism is an active overcoming of the environment, according to the principle of reactivity, it is the balancing of the organism with the environment. Activity manifests itself in activation, various reflexes, search activity, arbitrary acts, will, acts of free self-determination.
Consider the basic principles of human mental development.
Subject, tasks and methods of developmental psychology
Age-related psychology- a branch of psychological science, the object of study of which is a person developing from birth (and recently all more research appears in the field of prenatal development as a source of the formation of mental life) until death.
Subject her studies are the laws of mental development in ontogenesis, the age dynamics of the human psyche, mental processes and personality traits of a developing person at various stages of his life path.
Ontogenesis is the mental development of a person from birth to death.
Among the most significant issues Developmental psychology focuses on:
Scientific substantiation of age norms of various psychophysiological functions;
Identification of the actual and potential capabilities of a person in different periods of his life;
Scientific forecasting of development;
Substantiation of the role and significance of each previous stage of development for the next one.
The age evolution of the psyche has a certain specificity, which consists in its following features:
The age dynamics of various forms of the psyche is different different intensity and plays different roles in mental development at every stage human life;
Age-related features of the manifestation of mental functions are interrelated with individual features development of each individual.
The current state of psychological science makes it possible to study age variability in terms of several aspects:
ontological aspect (patterns of the correlation of biological and social in the understanding of age-related changes in a person).
Chronological aspect (characterizes mental evolution as a process that takes place in time throughout a person’s life; age dynamics is determined by such metric criteria as speed, pace, duration, orientation (vector) changes in mental phenomena at different stages of development). This approach makes it possible to identify irregularity and heterochrony development of the psyche.
Structural-dynamic aspect allows you to evaluate the patterns of qualitative transformations, to determine how succession and transformation are carried out at different stages mental structures (phenomena).
Causal aspect considers the problem of determination (determines the development of driving forces and conditions for human evolution, considering external and internal factors).
The concept of development
Consider the correlation of concepts - change, growth and development, which are somehow present in the descriptions of the dynamics of the human psyche.
Development is a series of changes that occur over a certain period of time. (Change means no stagnation.) Development- this is an irreversible, directed, regular change that occurs according to certain laws (the absence of patterns indicates the randomness of changes). irreversibility changes ensures the continuity of the development process (it is impossible to cancel what has already happened), in each new appearance of the changed object there are always “traces” of past experience. If we consider development from the point of view of a vector - the direction of changes - then it should be noted that development is not limited to growth, progress. (Growth is a systematic change when a certain factor within one System increases, progresses in terms of number, size or weight.) Development includes and regression. Another characteristic of development is procedural. In this sense, changes can go evolutionary(consecutive, progressive change) and revolutionary way (revolutionary changes are explosive, but they are not unexpected from the point of view of the logic of development, but are causal). Development can be characterized as a change in which, at critical moments, structural changes occur in the entire system.
Approaches to understanding development and interpreting the changes associated with it are constantly changing. It should be noted that there is still no well-established unified view on the features and nature of development. The dynamics of these views is of undoubted interest and gives an idea of the influence on the movement of scientific thought in this direction today.
According to S. Buhler, development is a change in a certain direction, subject to the laws of maturation. "Development is a fundamental biological property." Through quantitative growth, any organism reaches the point where the old primitive structure can no longer control the expanded organism. Continued growth then means either the disintegration of the organism (an example is biological death), or the reorganization of the internal structure of the organism, which could again control the expanded organism.
Development is already in the simplest living organism. Already in this primitive development, according to D. Harris, growth is laid, which he calls "planned development." It begins with a constantly repeating gradual cell division and differentiation, due to which organs and the body as a whole are formed. This is a natural phase of construction. Then follows the phase of balance between creation and destruction. At this time, a mature organism fully performs its functions. Finally, the third phase arrives, in which destruction predominates and death sets in. The plant in this process grows from sprout to stems and leaves and finally flowers and seeds. This happens throughout the year. In perennial plants, this development is repeated: from the root, which alone persists and shoots again and again.
And the animal has a life cycle, consisting of creation, balance and decline, each species has its own individual life span. It is said that the life of an animal is determined chronotypically. A mouse reaches the age of one and a half to two years, a dog can live twelve years, and a person about eighty.
When considering the structure of the organism, it turns out that the process of development, by definition, proceeds discretely. Development is growth from one structural crisis to another structural crisis. The development goes through several phases:
The growth of the whole organism or its parts;
Differentiation and formation of organs (formation of subsystems); at the same time, the functions that were first performed globally by the entire system are concentrated in subsystems that reach a higher degree of perfection (the formation of organs);
Hierarchy; certain bodies govern other bodies, sometimes referred to as hierarchical integration;
Integration into a new system; the whole organism works at a higher level and with increased complexity.
Biological development is always finish-oriented. Everything develops, striving for one goal, set at the very beginning - to a mature organism. Creation, balance and decline play a role in this process. All living organisms obey this law, and man is no exception.
However, human development is not limited to biological maturation. The psychological image of a person is deeper and more meaningful. Therefore, in addition to biological, consider mental, social and spiritual development.
As shown by L.S. Vygotsky, there are many different types of development. He singled out: preformed and unpreformed types of development. A preformed type is one in which, at the very beginning, both the stages that the phenomenon (organism) will pass through and the final result that the phenomenon will achieve are set, fixed, and fixed. Here everything is given from the very beginning. An example is embryonic development. Despite the fact that embryogenesis has its own history (there is a tendency to reduce the underlying stages, the newest stage affects the previous stages), but this does not change the type of development. In psychology, an attempt to present mental development according to the principle of embryonic development belongs to St. Hall. His theory of recapitulation is based on Haeckel's biogenetic law: ontogeny is a brief repetition of phylogeny. Mental development was considered by Art. Hall as a brief repetition of the stages of mental development of animals and ancestors modern man.
The unpreformed type of development is the most common. It includes the development of the universe, the development of our planet, the process of biological evolution, social development. The process of human mental development also belongs to this type. The unpreformed path of development is not predetermined. People - representatives of different cultural and historical eras, develop in different ways and reach different levels of development. This is the meaning of the notion that age is a concrete historical category. Human development is not predetermined biologically or genetically, from birth the child is not given the stages through which he must pass, the results that he must achieve in the process of development are not determined.
With the development of psychology, approaches to the interpretation of the processes occurring in the human psyche with age have changed. Different scientific theories and concepts have entered and are emerging on the stage, perhaps the only common thing for them is the understanding that development is a change of stages, the boundaries of which are outlined very conditionally. Each scientific concept tries to determine the patterns of development processes, the sources and conditions that determine it.
The division of ontogenesis into separate periods and stages, phases and epochs, ages is the essence of the periodization of mental development. The basis for periodization is determined by a specific concept - theoretical or empirical.
Sections of developmental psychology(branch of developmental psychology)
Child psychology (the subject of research here is the patterns of mental development from birth to the end of adolescence);
Youth psychology (it should be noted that in different sources the boundaries of youth are defined ambiguously; some researchers include the adolescent stage in this age, others consider it as the beginning of maturity);
Psychology of an adult (acmeology is one of the developing areas here, exploring adulthood as a period of the highest achievements in activity);
Gerontopsychology (psychology of old age)
Developmental psychology
Three ages and deathHans Baldung, 1540-1543
Prado Museum, Madrid
Age-related psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the psychological changes of a person as they grow older. It consists of three sub-sectors: gerontopsychology, child psychology, pre- and perinatal psychology. Explores the psyche and the human body in all age periods and at all stages, taking into account the biological, anthropological, sociological and psychological factors that affect its development.
Story
At the age of 20 In the 20th century, developmental psychology took shape as a branch of psychological knowledge, as an independent science.
- Development of philosophical theories
60-70s 20th century - the term "developmental psychology" is firmly established in world science (synonym genetic psychology ).
Subject, tasks and methods
The subject of developmental psychology and developmental psychology
- Formation of personality traits
The object of developmental psychology is a complex dynamic system of interrelated processes and phenomena.
The scientific goal of developmental psychology is the comprehension of psychological phenomena by analyzing their origin, therefore it is included in the field of general psychology[ source not specified 2000 dayssource not specified 2000 days].
Functions of Developmental Psychology
Research methods
- organizational method.
- comparative method - comparison of different groups; data for each group are compared with each other and conclusions are drawn about what development trends are observed here and what causes them.
- longitudinal method - long, involves several methods. The method is used in various types of research, for example, in selective or complex research.
- complex - a combination of comparative and longitudinal method
- empirical method.
- observation method
- experimental method
- psychological diagnostics (conversation, testing, questionnaire, survey)
- biographical method
- observational method (observation and self-observation)
- Interpretive method
- genetic method
- structural method
Development theories
- Gesell's theory of maturation
- The Psychosexual Development of Sigmund Freud
- Eight Stages of Erickson's Life
- Bettelheim's theory of autism
- Jung's maturity theory
Developmental psychology is:
Developmental Psychology Hans Baldung. Three ages and death. 1540-1543. Prado Museum. MadridDevelopmental psychology (Age-related psychology) is a branch of psychology that studies the psychological changes of a person as they grow up. It consists of three sub-sectors: gerontopsychology, child psychology, pre- and perinatal psychology. Explores the psyche and the human body in all age periods and at all stages, taking into account the biological, anthropological, sociological and psychological factors that affect its development.
Developmental psychology originated in 1882. Its appearance is associated with the publication of the book "The Soul of a Child" by the outstanding German physiologist and psychologist Wilhelm Preyer, dedicated to child psychology.
At the age of 20 In the 20th century, developmental psychology took shape as a branch of psychological knowledge, as an independent science.
The origins of developmental psychology as a science:
- Development of philosophical theories
- Discoveries of evolutionary biology in the 19th century.
- Socio-historical changes
- Development of natural and human sciences
60-70s 20th century - the term "developmental psychology" has firmly established itself in world science (synonymous with genetic psychology).
The subject of developmental psychology and developmental psychology:
- Conditions and driving causes of the ontogeny of the human psyche
- Development of mental processes (cognitive, emotional, volitional)
- Development of various types of activities (activities)
- Formation of personality traits
- Age and individual psychological characteristics
Object of developmental psychology- a complex dynamic system of interrelated processes and phenomena.
The Scientific Purpose of Developmental Psychology- comprehension of psychological phenomena by comprehending their genesis (origin), therefore it is included in the field of general psychology [ source not specified 260 days]. This is a part of general psychology that studies the similarities and differences in the psychological functioning of a person throughout his life[ source not specified 260 days].
Tasks[ source not specified 1262 days] developmental psychology:
- Disclosure of general patterns of development
- Establishing the reasons for the transition from one stage to another
- Periodization of age periods
- Psychological picture of each stage
- Study of the leading factors of development
Functions of developmental psychology:
- Description - describes the features of human development in different age periods in terms of external behavior and internal experiences
- Explanation of the development process - understanding the causes, factors, conditions for changes in behavior and experiences of a person at different age stages.
- Forecasting certain changes in the behavior and experiences of a person as a result of his development
- Correction of mental development - creation of optimal conditions for managing development
Development theories
- Early Theories: Preformism, Conformism Locke and Rousseau
- Gesell's theory of maturation
- Ethological and evolutionary theories of Darwin, Lorentz and Tinbergen
- Attachment Theories - Bowlby and Ainsworth
- Philosophy of Education Montessori
- Organism theory and Werner's comparative theory
- Piaget's theory of cognitive development
- Stages of moral development according to Kohlberg
- Learning Theories: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner
- Bandura's Social Learning Theory
- Cultural-historical theory of Vygotsky and Luria
- Psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud
- Separation-individuation theory by Margaret Mahler
- Eight Stages of Erickson's Life
- Bettelheim's theory of autism
- Schachtel's theory of childhood experiences
- Jung's maturity theory
Notes
- from the book: W. Crane, "Theories of Development", 2002 (see excerpt from the book)
see also
- Development
- cognitive development
- stress analysis
Literature
Karabanova OA Developmental psychology. Lecture notes. M., "Iriss-press", 2005, p.238. ISBN 5-8112-1353-0
Links
- Makogon IK Stages of development and age crises.
- Norms and stages of development of children
- Articles about child psychology
- Kon I. S. Psychology of early youth
- From the history of the formation and development of Russian developmental psychology in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
- Characteristics of developmental psychology, developmental psychology as a science
- Growth and Development
- Shapar V. B. Modern course of practical psychology, or How to achieve success
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- Developmental psychology
- Development theories
Subject, tasks and problems of developmental psychology and developmental psychology
2. The subject of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
3. Tasks of developmental psychology (L. Montada and others).
11. Areas of development.
1. The concept of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
Modern psychology is a branched system of scientific disciplines, among which a special place is occupied by developmental psychology or, more correctly, the psychology of human development, associated with the study of age dynamics of the development of the human psyche, the ontogenesis of mental processes and psychological qualities of the personality of a person qualitatively changing in time.
The concept of developmental psychology in principle already concepts of developmental psychology, since development is considered here only as a function or chronological age, or age period; focuses on the age characteristics of the psyche.
Developmental psychology is connected not only with the study of the age stages of human ontogenesis, but also considers various processes of macro- and micropsychic development in general, studies the process of mental development itself. Therefore, strictly speaking, developmental psychology can only be part of developmental psychology, although they are sometimes used interchangeably.
2. The subject of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
Two sources nourish developmental psychology. On the one hand, these are explanatory principles of biology and evolutionary theory, on the other hand, ways of social and cultural influence on the course of development.
The definition of developmental psychology as the doctrine of the periods of psychological development and personality formation in ontogenesis, their change and transitions from one age to another, as well as the historical analysis of the successive stages of ontogenesis, indicate that the subject of developmental psychology has changed historically. At present, the subject of developmental psychology is the disclosure of the general laws of mental development in ontogenesis, the establishment of age periods, the formation and development of activity, consciousness and personality, and the reasons for the transition from one period to another, which is impossible without taking into account the influence of cultural, historical, ethnic and socio-economic conditions.
Components subject of developmental psychology are:
- changes that occur in the psyche and behavior of a person during the transition from one age to another;
In this case, the changes can be different:
quantitative (increase vocabulary, memory size...)
Evolutionary - accumulate gradually, smoothly, slowly;
Qualitative (complication of grammatical constructs in speech - from situational speech to a monologue, from involuntary to voluntary attention)
Revolutionary - deeper, occur quickly (leap in development), appear at the turn of periods;
Situational - associated with a specific social environment, its influence on the child; unstable, reversible and need to be fixed;
- concept of age- is defined as a specific combination of the psyche and behavior of a person.
Age or age period is a cycle of child development that has its own structure and dynamics. Psychological age(L.S. Vygotsky) - a qualitatively unique period of mental development, characterized primarily by the appearance of a neoplasm, which is prepared by the entire course of previous development.
Psychological age may not match the chronological age of an individual child, recorded on their birth certificate and then on their passport. The age period has certain boundaries. But these chronological boundaries can shift, and one child will enter a new age period earlier, and the other later. The boundaries of adolescence, associated with the puberty of children, "float" especially strongly.
- patterns, mechanisms and driving forces mental development;
- childhood- the subject of developmental psychology according to Obukhova - a period of enhanced development, change and learning.
3. Tasks of developmental psychology.
Tasks and functions of developmental psychology broad and versatile. At present, this branch of psychology has acquired the status of a scientific and practical discipline, and therefore, theoretical and practical tasks should be distinguished among its tasks. The theoretical tasks of developmental psychology include the study of the main psychological criteria and characteristics of Childhood, Youth, Adulthood (Maturity), Old Age as social phenomena and successive states of society, the study of the age dynamics of mental processes and personal development depending on cultural, historical, ethnic and social - economic conditions, various types of upbringing and education, research on differential psychological differences (sexually mature and typological properties of a person), research on the process of growing up in its entirety and diverse manifestations.
Among the scientific and practical tasks facing developmental psychology include the creation of a methodological basis for monitoring the progress, the usefulness of the content and conditions of mental development at different stages of ontogenesis, the organization of optimal forms of activity and communication in childhood and adolescence, as well as the organization of psychological assistance during periods age crises, adulthood and old age.
L. Montada proposes to single out 6 main tasks related to the scope of application of developmental psychology in practice.
1. Orientation in life. This task involves answering the question “what do we have?”, i.e. determination of the level of development. The sequence of age-related changes in the form of a description of quantitative developmental functions or qualitative stages of development is a classic issue in developmental psychology.
On this basis, statistical age development standards, thanks to which it is possible to give a general assessment of the course of development both in individual cases and in relation to various educational and educational issues. So, for example, knowing what tasks children of 7 years old independently solve, it is possible to determine whether a particular child is below, above or on par with the norm. At the same time, it is possible to determine whether the educational and educational requirements correspond to this norm of independence.
2. Determining the conditions for development and change. This task presupposes the answer to the question “how did this arise?”, i.e. what are the causes and conditions that led to this level of development. Explanatory models of developmental psychology are focused primarily on the analysis of the ontogenesis of personality traits and its disorders, taking into account attitudes, the development environment, interaction with educators, special events, and also, as an ideal case, the interaction of all these variables.
At the same time, psychologists are interested not so much in short-term as long-term influences of developmental factors. The cumulative nature of the influence of development factors and the discrete nature of causal relationships are also taken into account. Knowledge of the conditions allows you to delay developmental disturbances (prevention) and make appropriate decisions to optimize the course of development. Of particular importance for obtaining the desired effect is the determination of the conformity of the conditions of development and options interference with the current level of development of the individual, his personal properties.
3. Prediction of stability and variability of personality traits. This task involves answering the question “what will happen if ..?”, i.e. a forecast not only of the course of development, but also of the intervention measures taken. Many activities in the practice of educational and educational work - explicitly or implicitly - suggest a forecast for further development. Thus, for example, the right to care for a child after the divorce of the parents is retained by the mother only if it is considered that this will be best for the further development of the child. To make such predictions, knowledge is needed about the stability or instability of the properties and conditions for the development of both the personality itself and the personality in the group. Due to the numerous factors involved, such psychological forecasts are often erroneous.
4. Explanation of development and correction goals. This task involves answering the question “what should be?”, i.e. determines what is possible, real, and what should be excluded. As an empirical science, developmental psychology, in contrast to pedagogy, neutral in relation to the social order, public and personal opinion. Therefore, it is able and obliged to resist them, if this contradicts the established facts and laws. At the same time, it performs the function of substantiating certain proposals and projects, if they are consistent with its knowledge. And finally, it acts as the initiator of the correction of decisions already made, if studies show their unreasonableness. A falsely established norm of development leads to significant distortions in the practice of educational and upbringing work.
5. Corrective action planning. This task involves answering the question “how can the goals be achieved?”, i.e. what needs to be done to get the desired effect from the intervention. So, corrective measures are needed only if the set development goals are not achieved, if the development tasks are not mastered, or if there is a fact that the development conditions lead to its undesirable course.
Here we must distinguish:
1) development goals of the individual himself;
2) development potentials of the individual himself;
3) social requirements for development;
4) development opportunities.
Accordingly, corrective measures should be differentiated according to their purpose. Often there is a discrepancy between these goals, which should be the object of correction. The purpose of the planned correction may be the prevention of developmental disorders, the correction of development, or the optimization of developmental processes. In any case, informed decisions must be made about when the intervention promises to be successful, where it should be applied, and which method should be chosen.
6. Evaluation of developmental correction. This task involves answering the question “what did it lead to?”, i.e. that the corrective action has taken. Modern developmental psychology refrains from a hasty assessment of the effectiveness of certain corrective actions. She believes that a real assessment can only be obtained as a result of long-term observation of the individual, during which both positive effects and side effects should be established. It is also believed that the evaluation of effectiveness is largely determined by the scientific paradigm that the psychologist adheres to.
4. The main functions of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
Like any science, developmental psychology has functions descriptions, explanations, forecasts, corrections. In relation to a certain area of research (in our case, to mental development), these functions act as specific scientific tasks, those. common goals that science seeks to achieve.
The description of development presupposes the presentation of the phenomenology of the processes of development in its entirety (from the point of view of external behavior and internal experiences). Unfortunately, a lot of developmental psychology is at the level of description.
To explain development means to identify the causes, factors and conditions that led to changes in behavior and experience. The explanation is based on a scheme of causality, which can be strictly unambiguous (which is extremely rare), probabilistic (statistical, with varying degrees of deviation), or absent altogether. It can be single (which is very rare) or multiple (which is usually the case in developmental studies).
If the explanation answers the question “why did this happen?” By revealing the causes for the already existing effect and determining the factors that caused it, then the forecast answers the question “what will it lead to?”, Pointing to the consequences that follow from this cause. Thus, if in the explanation of development thought moves from effect to cause then in the development forecast we go from cause to effect. This means that when explaining the changes that have occurred, the study begins with their description and continues with the transition to the description. possible causes and their relationship to the changes.
When forecasting, the study also begins with a description of the changes that have occurred, but they are no longer considered as a consequence, but as the cause of possible changes, the description of which must be compiled. The development forecast always wears hypothetical, because it is based on an explanation, on the establishment of links between the ensuing consequence and possible causes. If this connection is established, then the fact of its existence allows us to consider that the totality of the identified causes will necessarily entail a consequence. This, in fact, is the meaning of the forecast.
If the development description is creating his image in the mind of the researcher, the explanation - establishing links consequences with possible causes, and the development forecast - prediction it, based on the already established cause-and-effect relationships, then the correction of development is management through a change in possible causes. And since development is a branching process that has nodes of qualitative and lines of quantitative changes, the possibilities of correction are theoretically unlimited. Restrictions are imposed here to a greater extent by the possibilities of description, explanation and forecast, which provide information about the nature of the ongoing processes and the nature of the object as a whole. It is important to note the special place of the forecast and correction of development in solving applied problems of developmental psychology.
The result of the description, explanation, forecast and correction is model or theory development.
Undoubtedly, one of the main issues in the theory of individual development of a person is precisely the question of the relationship between age, typological and individual characteristics of a person, about the changing and contradictory relationships between them. Individual development becomes more and more peculiar and individualized with age.
Exploring the dynamics of age, the characteristics of individual periods and the relationship between them, one cannot abstract from the life path of a person, the history of his individual development in various social relations and mediations. The age periods of life common to all people (from infancy to old age) are characterized relatively permanent signs somatic and neuropsychic development.
Developmental psychology is the study of how people's behaviors and experiences change with age. Although most developmental theories focus on the period of childhood, their ultimate goal is to reveal patterns of development throughout a person's life. The study, description and explanation of these patterns determines the scope of the tasks that developmental psychology solves.
5. Sections of developmental psychology and their features.
The structure of developmental psychology and developmental psychology:
Developmental psychology studies the process of development of mental functions and personality throughout a person's life.
There are 3 sections of developmental psychology:
1. Child psychology (from birth to 17 years);
2. Psychology of adults, mature ages;
3. Gerontology or the psychology of old age.
In the West, interest in the study of childhood (we are talking about the period from about 7 years to adolescence) arose only after the end of the industrial revolution in the 19th century. However, long before this early childhood considered as a separate period of the life cycle. At the moment when the changes in the economic organization of society caused by the industrial revolution (such as the migration of the population from the countryside to the cities) began to take place, a favorable period began to study childhood.
The Industrial Revolution led to factory workers needing basic literacy and numeracy skills that could only be acquired within a general primary education. Thus, research into the mind of the child received a powerful impetus, since it was they who could make education more effective. Undoubtedly, other social factors (such as increased wealth, improved hygiene, increased control of childhood diseases) also contributed to the shift in focus towards childhood.
Adolescence as a separate stage between childhood and adulthood has also been identified and described in a system of biological, historical and cultural changes. The distinctive biological features of adolescence provided visible landmarks for distinguishing this phase of the life cycle. However, he became an object of study in developmental psychology only in the 20th century, when Western society reached a level of prosperity that made it possible to remove economic responsibility from a teenager. This made it possible to delay the entry of adolescents into working life and at the same time increase the time for obtaining education.
In modern developmental psychology, historical analysis will be extended not only to Childhood as a socio-psychological phenomenon of society, but also to Youth, Maturity, and Old Age. However, until recently these ages were outside the sphere of actual interests of developmental psychology (developmental psychology), since Maturity was considered as the age of "psychological petrification", and Old Age - as the age of total extinction. Thus, developing physically, socially, an adult person was, as it were, excluded from the process of development in its socio-psychological meaning and from the history of the development of the most specific person as a really acting subject, the development of his consciousness, self-consciousness, and other personal qualities.
Development in adulthood life path - has only recently become the subject of research. Social and medical advances that made it possible to live to a very old age and live long enough after the end of active work have drawn attention to the problems and real opportunities of older people. Therefore, the question arose about the psychology of aging, also addressed to the psychology of development.
The actualization of the interest of developmental psychology in the study of periods of Maturity and Old Age is associated with the humanization of society and the beginning of the revival and active development of acmeology (declared in the works of B. G. Ananyev) as a science about the period of maximum prosperity personal growth, the highest moment of manifestation of spiritual forces. These trends and scientific approaches have significantly changed current situation understanding of the Adult, opening up a new space for a person, emphasizing the importance of studying the main points of his creative self-development.
As D. I. Feldstein points out, these important and promising areas should in the future reveal the problem of the Adult in development and the problem of its development, which is possible only if all stages of ontogenesis are considered in unity, and old age, including deep , will be studied as a moment of an individual path. In the knowledge of an adult, understanding his personal characteristics, it is important to take into account the historical situation.
Modern man has not only acquired new possibilities of choice, a new level of self-consciousness (the available studies of individuals of antiquity - A.F. Losev, the Middle Ages - Ya.A. turn of the millennium, require him to further develop in terms of expanding relations, deepening self-determination, "general maturation". And constantly growing opportunities (determined by the achievements of science, technology, medicine, informatization, etc.) determine a new situation for the development of an adult, expanding the boundaries of his life. And in this regard, the problem of old age, the problem of an elderly person, is of particular importance.
Among the individual sections of developmental psychology, gerontology is the "youngest" area of research. Right now, old ideas about old age are breaking down. Its two aspects - physical and psychological - are becoming more and more differentiated. Old age is a natural stage in human development, and the possibilities of lengthening human life are becoming more and more obvious, including through the internal self-development of the individual himself, the development of his psychological stability against aging.
So, at every point in the life cycle, there are both biological and cultural aspects of development. Biological processes promote development and provide a natural "marking" of individual stages. They acquire significance as prerequisites for social history and provide a stimulus for a deeper understanding of the life cycle. Society influences the development of a person throughout his life. It sets a frame of reference, relative to which individual stages or periods of life can be singled out and studied.
6. Actual problems of developmental psychology at the present stage.
1. The problem of organic and environmental conditioning of the psyche and human behavior;
2. The problem of the influence of spontaneous and organized education and upbringing on the development of children (which influences more: family, street, school?);
3. The problem of correlation and identification of inclinations and abilities;
4. The problem of the correlation of intellectual and personal changes in the mental development of the child.
The modern nature of the requirements of social practice imposed on developmental psychology determines its convergence not only with pedagogy, but also with medicine and engineering psychology, as well as with other related branches of science that study human beings.
The emergence of new problems at the intersection of developmental and engineering psychology and labor psychology is due to the need to take into account the age factor when building effective modes of training operators and in training professional excellence in conditions of highly automated production, in assessing the reliability of work and the adaptive capabilities of a person in conditions of overload. Very little research has been done in this direction.
The convergence of medical sciences and developmental psychology takes place on the basis of the increasing requirements of clinical diagnostics for more accurate prevention, treatment and labor expertise, using deep and comprehensive knowledge about the states and capabilities of a person in different periods of his life. Close connection with the clinic, medicine, including geriatrics, contributes to the in-depth development of the main problems of developmental psychology, such as the potentials of human development in different age periods, the definition of age norms of mental functions.
One of actual problems is the expansion of knowledge on the age characteristics of the psychophysiological functions of adults through their micro-age analysis during the period of growth and involution. Conducting research in the indicated plan on schoolchildren of different ages made it possible to show the effect of complex patterns of age-related variability of some psychophysiological functions at different levels of their organization and to give their theoretical description.
The formation of a person as a person, as a subject of cognition, social behavior and practical activity is somehow connected with age limits that mediate the process of social impact on a person, social regulation of his status and behavior in society.
The specificity of the age factor lies not only in the fact that it manifests itself differently in certain periods of the life cycle. Its study is complicated by the fact that it acts in unity with individual characteristics, which are important to take into account when developing age standards.
The problem of age normalization includes not only consideration of average standards, but also the question of individual variability. psychological characteristics. In addition, individual differences act as an independent problem in the structure of developmental psychology. Consideration of age and individual characteristics in their unity creates new opportunities for studying learning ability, for determining ontogeny and the degree of maturity of psychological functions.
The next cycle of problems in developmental psychology is associated with the phenomenon of accelerating the development process. Acceleration during the period of growth and maturation of the body and retardation of aging, pushing back the boundaries of gerontogenesis in modern society under the influence of a whole range of socio-economic, sanitary, hygienic and biotic factors influence the construction of a system of age regulation. At the same time, the issues of acceleration and retardation remain little studied precisely because the age-related criteria for mental development in their diversity turn out to be insufficiently developed.
For further study of one of the main problems of developmental psychology - the classification of life periods - the structural-genetic approach to ontogenetic development person.
Based on the knowledge of the main characteristics of the human life cycle, its internal laws and mechanisms, a synthetic problem can be developed about hidden opportunities and reserves of mental development itself.
Among the main problems of developmental psychology is the study of developmental factors, since it is carried out in the interaction of a person with the outside world, in the process of communication, practical and theoretical activities. The determinants and conditions of human development include socio-economic, political and legal, ideological, pedagogical, as well as biotic and abiotic factors.
In this way, a certain hierarchy of topical problems of a more general and particular order is outlined, the solution of which is subordinated to the main goal - the further development of the theory of individual development and the expansion of the possibilities for applying scientific knowledge on developmental psychology to solving problems of social and industrial practice, since now Scientific research patterns of mental development becomes necessary condition further improvement of all forms of upbringing and education not only of the younger generation, but also of an adult.
7. Characteristics of childhood according to Feldstein D.I.
In modern developmental psychology, the historical analysis of the concept of "childhood" is most fully given in the concept of D. I. Feldstein, who considers childhood as a socio-psychological phenomenon of society and a special state of development.
In the concept of D. I. Feldstein, a meaningful psychological analysis systems of interaction of functional connections that determine the social state of Childhood in its generalized understanding in a particular society, as well as ways to resolve the issue of what connects different periods of Childhood, which provides general state Childhood, which brings him to another state - to Adulthood.
Defining childhood as a phenomenon of the social world, D. I. Feldstein singles out the following characteristics.
functional - Childhood is to come as an objectively necessary state in the dynamic system of society, the state of the process of maturation of the younger generation and therefore preparation for the reproduction of the future society.
In his meaningful definition is a process of constant physical growth, accumulation of mental neoplasms, development of social space, reflection on all relations in this space, definition of oneself in it, one's own self-organization, which occurs in the constantly expanding and more complex contacts of the child with adults and other children (younger children, peers , seniors), the adult community as a whole.
Essentially - Childhood is a form of manifestation, a special state of social development, when biological patterns associated with age-related changes of the child, to a large extent manifest their action, "obeying", however, to an ever greater extent the regulating and determining action of the social.
And the meaning of all meaningful changes lies not only in the acquisition, appropriation by the child of social norms (which, as a rule, focuses on), but in the very development of social, social properties, qualities that are inherent in human nature. In practice, this is carried out in achieving a certain level of socialization, which is typical for a specific historical society, more broadly for a specific historical time, but at the same time it is also a state of development of that social level that characterizes a person of a certain era, in this case a modern person. At the same time, the social principle, as they grow older, more and more actively determines the features of the functioning of the child and the content of the development of his individuality.
According to D. I. Feldstein, the main, internally laid down goal of Childhood in general and of each child, in particular, is growing up - the development, appropriation, realization of adulthood. But the same goal growing up children, subjectively having a different direction - to ensure this growing up - is the main one for the Adult world. The attitude of the Adult community to Childhood, regardless of the definition of its upper limit, is distinguished primarily by stability - it is an attitude as to a special state, as to a phenomenon that is outside the adult sphere of life.
The author of the concept considers the problem of the relationship of the Adult community to Childhood in a broad socio-cultural context and socio-historical plan and highlights the position of the World of Adults towards Childhood not as a collection of children of different ages - outside the Adult World (who need to be raised, educated, trained), but as a the subject of interaction as a special state of its own, which society goes through in its constant reproduction. This is not a “social nursery”, but a social state deployed in time, ranked by density, structures, forms of activity, etc., in which children and adults interact.
8. Interdisciplinary links between developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
In recent decades, developmental psychology has changed both in its content and interdisciplinary connections. On the one hand, it influences other scientific disciplines, and on the other hand, it itself is influenced by them, assimilating everything that expands its subject content.
Biology, genetics, developmental physiology. These disciplines are important, first of all, for understanding prenatal development, as well as for the subsequent stages of ontogeny from the point of view of its early foundations. They play a significant role in the analysis of the adaptive capabilities of newborns, as well as general physical and motor (motor) development, especially in relation to subsequent changes in behavior and experience. Of particular interest here is the development of the central nervous system, sensory organs and endocrine glands. In addition, the discoveries of biology are of particular importance for understanding the issues of "subject - environment", i.e. explanations of similarities and differences in the development of different individuals.
Ethology. The importance of ethology, or the comparative study of behavior, has grown considerably in recent years. It shows the biological roots of behavior by providing information about the interaction between the environment and the individual (for example, the study of imprinting). No less valuable is methodological possibility conduct observations and experiments on animals, and especially in cases where their conduct on humans is prohibited for ethical reasons. The ability to transfer findings from animals to humans is essential to understanding human development.
Cultural anthropology and ethnology. The subject of study of cultural anthropology and ethnology are transcultural universals and intercultural differences in behavior and experience. These disciplines allow, on the one hand, to test the patterns identified in the American-European cultural environment in other cultures (for example, East Asian) and, on the other hand, due to the expansion of the cultural environment, to identify intercultural differences that cause different development processes. Of particular importance in recent years is the study of children's folklore (subculture).
Sociology and social disciplines. These sciences acquire their significance for developmental psychology both due to certain theoretical premises (role theory, theory of socialization, theories of the formation of attitudes and norms, etc.), and due to the analysis of the processes of social interaction in the family, school, group of the same age, and also through the study of the socio-economic conditions of development.
Psychological disciplines. The sciences of the psychological cycle are most closely related to developmental psychology. Sciences united by name "General psychology", allow you to better understand the mental processes of motivation, emotions, cognition, learning, etc. Pedagogical psychology closes developmental psychology to pedagogical practice, the processes of education and upbringing.
Clinical (medical) psychology helps to understand the development of children with disorders of various aspects of the psyche and merges with developmental psychology along the lines of child psychotherapy, psychoprophylaxis, and psychohygiene. Psychodiagnostics goes hand in hand with developmental psychology in adapting and applying diagnostic techniques in comparative analysis intellectual, personal, etc. development and to determine the age norms of development. Links between developmental psychology and psychology of creativity and heuristic processes(in the line of gifted and advanced developmental children); psychology of individual differences, etc.
In recent years, the volume of interaction between developmental psychology and pathopsychology(oligophrenopsychology, childhood neurosis) and defectology (work with hearing-impaired and visually impaired children, children with mental retardation, etc.). One can detect the merging of developmental psychology with psychogenetics, psycholinguistics, psychosemiotics, ethnopsychology, demography, philosophy, etc. Almost all progressive and interesting work in developmental psychology, as a rule, is carried out at the intersection of disciplines.
Over the long period of its existence, developmental psychology has assimilated general psychological methods observation and experiment applying them to the study of human development at different age levels. Developmental psychology is closely related to other areas of psychology: general psychology, human psychology, social, pedagogical and differential psychology. As you know, in general psychology, mental functions are studied - perception, thinking, speech, memory, attention, imagination. In developmental psychology, the process of development of each mental function at different age stages is traced.
In human psychology, such personal formations, as motivation, self-esteem and level of claims, value orientations, worldview, etc., and developmental psychology answers the questions when these formations appear in a child, what are their characteristics at a certain age. The connection between developmental psychology and social psychology shows the dependence of the development and behavior of the child on the characteristics of the groups in which he is included: on the family, kindergarten group, school class, teen companies. Developmental and pedagogical psychology, as it were, look at the process of interaction between a child and an adult from different angles: developmental psychology from the point of view of the child, pedagogical - from the point of view of the educator, teacher.
In addition to age patterns of development, there are also individual differences that differential psychology deals with: children of the same age may have different levels of intelligence and different personality traits. In developmental psychology, age-related patterns that are common to all children are studied. But at the same time, possible deviations in one direction or another from the general lines of development are also noted. In addition to the sciences of the psychological cycle, developmental psychology is associated with philosophy, anatomy, physiology, and pedagogy.
9. Definition of the concept of development.
Developmental psychology as subject studies the natural changes of a person in time and the related facts and phenomena of mental life. Almost all researchers agree that development can be defined as change over time: the idea of change and its course in time undeniable. Another thing is to answer questions what and how changes. This is where the differences begin. (Sapogova E.E., 2001)
Development as growth. Such an understanding is almost never found in modern science. Under growth process is understood quantitative changes (accumulation) of the external features of the object, measured in height, length, width, thickness, weight, etc. This means that, firstly, growth is just one of the aspects of development, i.e. remain and other; secondly, that growth is only external an indicator of development that does not say anything about its essence; thirdly, growth can only be quantitative characteristic of development.
Development as maturation. This definition of development is used primarily in everyday thinking. Under ripening refers to the reduction, curtailment of development to morphological changes, proceeding under the direct control of the genetic apparatus. This means that such a definition exaggerates the significance of biological heredity and, accordingly, underestimates the significance of other aspects of development.
Development as improvement. This definition is often used in pedagogy and is teleological character, those. it initially assumes the presence of a goal (teleo), which acts as a "perfect" those. the best, exemplary, ideal form of development. In this case, first of all, it is not clear who can set such a goal: is it externally(God, upbringing, environment) or internally given (through the hereditary apparatus). And secondly, it is not clear why just such the form of development should be considered as the best, perfect, and not any other (who sets the criteria for "perfection"?).
Development as universal change. As one of the criteria for determining development, the requirement is put forward generality, universality the changes taking place. It means that the same changes must take place among people of different cultures, religions, languages, levels of development. With clear evidence of this requirement, it turns out to be not feasible. First, it is impossible to really establish which changes are classified as general, universal, and which ones are considered as private. And, secondly, with such an approach, a large mass of particular changes will be generally denied to be considered the subject of developmental psychology.
Development as a qualitative, structural change. The definition of development through qualitative changes is connected with the understanding of the object as systems. If the essential improvement(deterioration) of its structure, we thereby return to the definition of development through perfection, keeping his shortcomings. The only difference is that the subject of improvement narrows. If there is no question of improvement (deterioration), then it is not clear where development is directed. And finally, if earlier it was about improving the object as a whole, now it is only about improving only it. structures. In other words, the quantitative measure of improvement is excluded and only the qualitative measure is preserved.
Development as a quantitative and qualitative change. In the previous case, the qualitative nature of the changes was taken as a basis, and the quantitative nature was leveled. However, the very idea of their connection is present in all variants of definitions. For example, growth can be viewed as a quantitative change, but some qualitative transitions stand out in it. Maturation is closer to a qualitative change, but it also contains a quantitative aspect. confining only quantitative changes, we take an unconditional step back in the understanding of development. However, by excluding quantitative changes from the definition of development, we lose the opportunity to establish what caused these qualitative changes themselves.
Development as change entailing new changes. Dissatisfaction with the existing definitions of development stimulated the search and emergence of new ideas. So, G.-D. Schmidt postulates the presence of a close, existential connection between the changes that follow one after another. A. Flammer writes that development should be considered only such changes that entail new changes (“an avalanche of changes”). This definition carries the idea evolutionary succession changes.
Developmental changes can be:
1) quantitative / qualitative;
2) continuous / discrete, spasmodic;
3) universal / individual;
4) reversible / irreversible;
5) targeted / non-directed;
6) isolated / integrated;
7) progressive (evolutionary) / regressive (involutionary).
In addition, development can be considered in different temporal dimensions, forming changes at the phylo-, anthropo-, onto- and micro levels.
10. Categories of development: growth, maturation, differentiation.
For a general integral characteristic of development processes, categories are used that do not relate to individual features, but to development as a whole. These are the categories of growth, maturation, differentiation, learning, imprinting (imprinting), socialization (cultural sociogenesis).
Growth. Changes that occur in the course of development can be quantitative or qualitative. An increase in body height or an increase in vocabulary represent quantitative changes. Physiological changes at the age of puberty or gaining an understanding of the ambiguity of words in sayings are, on the contrary, qualitative changes. Therefore, in the pair category "quantity - quality" the concept of growth refers to the quantitative aspect of development.
Growth is only a separate aspect of the course of development, namely, a one-dimensional quantitative consideration of development processes. To consider development in the aspect of growth means to confine ourselves to the study of purely quantitative changes, when knowledge, skills, memory, content of feelings, interests, etc. considered only from the point of view of increment of their volume.
Maturation. The maturational approach to development has dominated psychology for quite some time. It is customary to refer to biological maturation as all processes occurring spontaneously under the influence of endogenously programmed, i.e. hereditarily determined and internally controlled growth impulses.
These processes include physical changes that are important for mental development - the maturation of the brain, nervous and muscular systems, endocrine glands, etc. Based on the psychophysical unity of man, i.e. connections between somatic and mental processes, biologically oriented models of development represented mental development by analogy with anatomical and physiological maturation as an internally regulated maturation process.
We usually talk about maturation when past experience, learning or exercise (exogenous factors) do not affect (or have an insignificant effect) on the nature of the changes taking place.
Along with the restriction of external conditions of development, a number of signs are distinguished that indicate the presence of maturation processes:
1) the similarity of occurrence and course;
2) occurrence at a strictly defined age;
3) catching up;
4) irreversibility.
Differentiation. If development is understood as the dependence of qualitative changes on maturation, then it is necessary to turn to the concept of differentiation. In a narrow sense, differentiation means the progressive isolation of heterogeneous parts from the original undivided whole, following the example of such somatic processes as cell division and the formation of tissues and organs.
It leads to an increase, on the one hand, in structural complexity, and, on the other hand, to the variability and flexibility of behavior. This also includes the growing diversity, specialization and autonomization of individual structures and functions. In a broad sense, differentiation simply means the general content of the progressive fragmentation, expansion and structuring of mental functions and modes of behavior.
11. Areas of development.
Development occurs in three areas: physical, cognitive and psychosocial. To physical area include such physical characteristics as the size and shape of the body and organs, changes in the structure of the brain, sensory capabilities and motor (or motor) skills. cognitive area(from lat. "cognitio" -"knowledge", "knowledge") covers all mental abilities and mental processes, including even a specific organization of thinking. This area includes such processes as perception, reasoning, memory, problem solving, speech, judgment and imagination.
AT psychosocial area includes personality traits and social skills. It includes the individual style of behavior and emotional response inherent in each of us, that is, how people perceive social reality and react to it. Human development in these three areas occurs simultaneously and is interconnected. In table. 1 gives a description of the three main areas of development.
Table 1.
There is a complex interplay between different areas of human development. Thus, development is not a sequence of separate, uncoordinated changes, but is of a holistic, systemic nature, as a result of which changes in one area entail changes in others.
Biological processes of development. All living organisms develop according to their genetic code or blueprint. Psychologists, speaking of the process of development in accordance with the genetic plan, use the term maturation. The process of maturation consists of a sequence of pre-programmed changes not only in the appearance of an organism, but also in its complexity, integration, organization and function.
Malnutrition or disease may slow maturation, but this does not mean that proper nutrition, good health, and even specially undertaken stimulation and training should greatly accelerate it. Apparently, this is true both in relation to the whole life of a person, and in relation to such processes as motor development in infancy or the development of secondary sexual characteristics in adolescence.
The maturation of body organs and motor abilities proceeds at different rates. Each organ or ability usually has its own point of optimal maturity. term growth typically indicates an increase in size, functionality, or complexity to that point. The term aging refers to the biological changes that occur after the point of optimal maturity has been passed. At the same time, aging processes do not necessarily imply a decline in activity or wear and tear of the body. Aging can increase human judgment and insight. In addition, it should be noted that the aging process of some body tissues begins already in adolescence and even in childhood.
12. The influence of the environment on human development.
Every moment we are exposed to the environment. Light, sound, heat, food, medicine, anger, kindness, severity - all this and more can serve basic biological and psychological needs, cause serious harm, attract attention, or become components of learning. Some environmental influences are temporary and limited to one situation, such as influenza at 22 years of age.
However, many other environmental influences can be permanent, as in the case of uninterrupted interaction with parents or occasional visits from restless and authoritative grandparents who interfere in the lives of their children and grandchildren. Environmental influences can retard or stimulate the growth of an organism, generate persistent anxiety, or contribute to the formation of complex skills.
The environment influences human development through the processes of learning and socialization. In addition, many environment-related changes in behavior occur through the interaction of maturation and learning, and the effect of such an interaction may depend significantly on the synchronization of these processes.
Learning. The basic process by which the environment induces lasting change in behavior is called learning. Learning occurs as a result of acquiring a single personal experience or performing a series of exercises. It can be observed in almost all human actions (solving algebraic equations, practicing the technique of moving with the ball on the football field, etc.). Each time, forming attitudes, opinions, prejudices, values or stereotypes of thinking, a person acquires skills and gains knowledge.
Despite the fact that on some particular issues of theories of learning, the opinions of psychologists differ, the majority agree that one of the main processes of learning is conditioning. Conditioning is the establishment of connections between various events occurring in the human environment. For example, a child may develop a fear of spiders simply by watching a friend react to them.
Socialization. Socialization - it is a process by which a person becomes a member of a social group: family, community, clan. Socialization includes the assimilation of all attitudes, opinions, customs, life values, roles and expectations of a particular social group. This process lasts a lifetime, helping people to find spiritual comfort and feel full members of society or some cultural group within this society.
In childhood, we take on some roles immediately, others only after the passage of time. A girl can play many roles every day: student, neighbor, older sister, daughter, sports team member, bosom friend, etc. When she becomes a teenager, the number of roles will increase. Each new role will require her to adapt to the behavior, social attitudes, expectations and values of the nearest social groups.
Socialization is usually understood as a two-way process. Previously, scientists believed that the behavior of children is almost entirely determined by how parents and teachers behave. It was believed, for example, that at first children passively identify with certain significant adults in their lives, and then imitate them in their behavior. More recent research is mainly devoted to the study of the mutual influence of children and parents on each other's behavior. The socialization of the infant occurs due to the experience he acquires within the family, but his very presence forces the family members to master new roles.
In general, the process of socialization occurs at all stages of life, and not just in childhood or adolescence. Adults are eager to learn new roles in order to prepare for the expected changes in life. However, it is in childhood that the processes of socialization develop stereotypes of behavior that persist in later life. Socialization contributes to the creation of a core of values, attitudes, skills and expectations, the totality of which forms an adult out of a child.
Interaction of development processes. There is an ongoing debate among scientists about the extent to which our behavior is determined by maturation and to what extent by learning. The baby first sits down, then gets up and finally walks - here maturation processes are of paramount importance. But drugs, poor nutrition, fatigue, illness, inhibitions, or emotional stress can prevent this behavior from unfolding.
Some skills, such as the performing skills of a musician or the motor skills of an athlete, are only maintained and improved through experience and constant practice. There are some types of behavior that are generally difficult to attribute to any category. Children have congenital ability to speak, but in order to use it, they must learn language. Babies spontaneously express emotions such as anger or pain, but they will have to learn manage their feelings in accordance with the norms accepted in their culture.
Thus, behavior is the product of the interaction between the processes of maturation and learning. A number of restrictions or features of behavior are inherent in the genetic code, but any behavior develops within the framework of a specific environment characteristic of each biological species.
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